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EL - Metalanguage, Polysyllabic - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Blending sounds
    - - Omitting sounds (deletion)
    - - Shorting sounds as vowels in unstressed positions are reduced to a 'swcha' sound
    - - Adding new sounds
  - - - The pattern of pitch changes (this can be used to communicate attitude or emotion)
    - - The rising intonation at the end of a statement so that the statement sounds like a question
  - - - The repetition of an initial consonant sound (in consecutive words or words near each other, can make a text more memorable)
    - - The repetitions of identical vowel sounds - e.g 'we need cream to clean'
    - - The repetition of consonant sounds - e.g 'beanz meanz heinz'
    - - The pattern of stressed or unstressed syllables in speech. Is common in poetry and song
    - - The repetition of word endings that have the same or similar vowel and consonant sounds. Rhyme is used to capture people attention
    - - Is a word formed by the imitation of a sound - e.g 'rustle' or 'splash'
- - - - A statement
    - - A question
    - - A command or instruction (imperatives are usually missing a subject, otherwise its a declarative)
    - - A strong emotional outburst
  - - - Contains one main clause (a subject and a verb)
    - - Has one independent clause and at least on subordinate clause (there are two different verbs/ verb groups)
    - - Contains at least two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon
    - - Have at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate (3 verbs with two clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction and one joined by a subordinating conjunction)
  - - - Contains a noun and other related words that help describe the word (these words are usually modifiers or determiners)
    - - Consists of a main verb in a sentence plus any auxiliaries, complements and other modifiers. A verb phrase can also be the whole predicate of a sentence
    - - Consists of the preposition and the object of the preposition as well as any other modifiers. Prepositional phrases act in place of adjectives or adverbs in a sentence. They always follow the structure of a preposition + noun phrase
    - - A group of words functioning as an adjective in a sentence (typically these are adjectives and their modifiers)
    - - Consists of an adverb or words acting as adverbs within a sentence. They usually follow the structure of either Adverb or Adverb + Adverb
  - - - The person or thing doing the action within a sentence
    - - The person or thing that has been acted upon
      - Sometimes it can be difficult to distinguish between an object and a complement in a clause. An active sentence with a complement can be recast as a passive sentence. This can't be done with a complement
    - - Provide extra information about an element, such as a subject or object (often a complement is an adjective)
    - - Provide extra info about an element, typically in relation to time, place or manner
    - - Express a complete thought and can stand alone to form a sentence. Independent clauses are linked together by coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS)
      - For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (FANBOYS)
    - - Begin with a subordinating conjunction (anything except fanboys) such as because, if, when, although, since etc
  - - - Follows the subject-verb-object order and is the most common default structure in English Language
    - - The patient (object) is moved to the initial position in a sentence and the agent (subject) is either delayed or omitted (agentless passive). This places emphasis on the object of the verb.
      - Passive structures are less direct and can sound more impersonal and objective especially when the agent is removed
    - - Has no agent (subject)
    - - The person or thing (Subject) that is doing the verb
    - - The thing effected by the verb
    - - The action being completed
  - - - The application of parallelism where the elements in parallel are in direct contrast with each other, often they are antonyms
    - - The collection of three or more related elements put together
    - - The repetition of two or more phrases, clauses or sentences that are structurally similar and appear near each other. Parallel structures are often used in conjunction with lexical repetition where the first portion of the structure also contains repeated lexis
- - - - Provide additional information about nouns
    - - Describe or add information about the verb
    - - Main verb
      - Auxiliary verb
        
        Used to modify/change some aspect of the main verb. Often they are used to modify a verb's tense (To be, To do, To have)
      - Modal veb
        
        Can, Could, Shall, Should, Will, Would, May, Might, Must
  - - - A work that introduces a noun. It always comes before a noun and before any other adjectives used to describe the noun e.g the, my, their, this
    - - Words that show the relationship between nouns and other words in a sentence
    - - Short words that can replace nouns in a sentece e.g her, we, I etc
    - - Words that express a sudden or strong emotional feeling e.g oops, eww, ouch
    - - Words used to link other words e.g and, because, unless, but etc
  - - - Can stand alone as words and can't be broken down any further
    - - Inflectional morpheme
        
        Doesn't change a word's meaning or word class however they provide additional information such as plurality, possession or tense
        
        -er, -est, -s, -ed, -en, -ing, 's, -s
      - Derivational morpheme
        
        Changes the meaning of words, creates a new words and can change the word class of the word
  - - - Brand new words
    - - Words created by using two parts of existing words
    - - Made up from the beginning of letters in a sequence of words e.g RACV
    - - Similar to initialisms but you pronounce the sounds of the letters rather than the letters themselves
    - - Shortened version of a word e.g gym from gymnasium
    - - Creating a new word by putting two free morphemes together e.g facebook
    - - Creating new words through the addition of affixes e.g writing (write + ing)
    - - Converting words from one word class to another without adding affixes to the word. E.g Email began as a noun and is now used as a verb
    - - E.g Can't, shouldn't, won't, they're etc
    - - Words so closely associated with one another that when we hear one we almost automatically provide the other. E.g Safe and sound
    - - The development of common everyday words that began life as proper nouns. E.g Band-aid
    - - Using words from other languages
    - - Word loss - Words that are no longer used in everyday life they may have been preserved in special contexts but are no longer common. E.g 'thy', 'thou' etc
    - - Word loss - words that are considered taboo or offensive and are therefore lost from the language
    - - The conversion of verbs into nouns
  - - - Involves the repetition of a word in its identical form or with very simple changes (sing, sings etc)
    - - Involves words and any forms of them created through affixation (category, categorise, categorical)
    - - Formal - Latin and Greek > Old French, Anglosaxon/Old English > Informal
    - - Top heavy (most formal), Bottom heavy (least formal)
- - - - When the author states one thing but actually intends the audience to understand a contradictory meaning. It is often used for humour or satire. It can also be used to build solidarity between interlocutors by developing implicit understanding
    - - Compares two things but relies on the audience using their imagination or knowledge of cultural context to find an interpretation beyond the literal meaning as a metaphor is implicit
    - - A phrase that combines two apparently contradictory words for special effect E.g 'deafening silence', 'walking dead' etc
    - - Explicitly connects one thing to another in order to make a comparison. Prepositions such as 'like' or 'as' are used to draw attention to the connection that is being made
    - - A specific type of metaphor that gives non humans human qualities or abilities such as emotions, desires, expressions or language
    - - A type of metaphor that gives life or movement to inanimate objects, ideas or places. Unlike personification, the animate qualities that are transferred are not specifically human and can be associated with other living things. E.g "The wind howled"
    - - Plays on the different meanings of words; it exploits lexical ambiguity for comedic effect
    - - Occurs when it is not possible to determine the intended meaning of a particular lexeme. E.g "the punch made him weak" where the punch could mean a blow with a fist or a beverage containing juice
- - - - Openings and closings
        
        Greetings or phatic talk before addressing a topic
      - Adjacency pairs
        
        Questions and answers, compliment and acknowledgment, thank you and response etc
      - Overlapping speech
      - Interrogative tage
        
        Little 'tags' we put at the end of a statement to turn it into a question. These are often used to check that the other person is understanding/agreeing e.g "you know", "don't you think", "right?"
      - Discourse particles
        
        Little 'fillers' that we insert into our speech e.g "like", "I guess", "sort of", "just", "a bit", "i think"
      - Non-fluency features
        
        Occur when we are speaking spontaneously and/or are trying to formulate ideas e.g um, ah, er etc
    - - Topic managment
        
        Strategies used for controlling the topic of conversation
      - Turn taking
        
        Involves taking the floor, holding the floor and passing the floor
      - Taking the floor
      - Holding the floor
      - Minimal responses/back channelling
        
        E.g "mmm", "yeah", "oh"
      - Pass the floor?
  - - - Prior knowledge that a reader brings to a text which makes the text easier to understand and is not explicitly mentioned within the text
    - - Ensures that a text is structured both visually and textually in a way that makes sense for that text type.
    - - The way something is arranged or set out.
    - - A coherent text is one that adheres to the conventions of the text type. Consistency and conventions go hand in hand with formatting. Features of consistency can be structural or lexical.
    - - Grammatical, lexical and organising features which aid the meaning of a text by ‘holding it together’
    - - Allow clarification of information, provide more details about the topic, or indicate where else it may be found e.g brackets are used to include more information
  - - - Synonymy is the use of words which are closely related in meaning in a patterned way and is used to vary the language within a text or utterance to avoid unnecessary repetition of ideas.
    - - An antonym (morphology/lexicology) is a word with a meaning, or denotation, opposite to that of another word. ANTONYMY is the use of words that are opposite in meaning in a patterned way.
    - - Hyponyms are words that are conceptual subdivisions of a general category. This means they’re conceptually included in the definition of the general category and belong in the same semantic field.
    - - E.g Salt and pepper; hard-earned money; rotten eggs; rancid butter; tropical paradise
    - - Terms which refer to the personal, temporal or locational characteristics of a situation, and whose meanings only make sense in that context E.g ‘here’, ‘there’, ‘this’, ‘that’
      - Diexis
        
        Deictic words or deixis are terms used to denote words or expressions that rely on the context to convey meaning. Such words make no sense if the context is not known or explained.
        Examples of deictic words include this, that, these, those, now & then.
        What do I do with all these handouts?
        I can’t believe you bought this place.
        To my right, Flinders Street Station and Federation Square.
    - - The use of words such as pronouns to refer to something already mentioned in a sentence. E.g The cake (referent) was delicious and everybody ate it (anaphor)
    - - Cataphoric reference is similar to anaphoric reference except that cataphor uses substitution before the referent is mentioned. E.g Although I call her every week, my mother still complains
    - - Using a word, phrase, or clause more than once, to dwell on, make clearer or place emphasis on a particular point.
    - - The omission of items (words or phrases) in a sentence because they appear elsewhere or can be inferred from the context
    - - Replacing one element of a sentence with something else. In a cohesive text, substitution could only take place if the element has already appeared in the text in full, as otherwise it will cause ambiguity
    - - Join phrases, clauses or words E.g Coordinating or subordinating conjunctions
    - - Words, phrases or clauses that provide extra information about a clause element, particularly with regard to time, place or manner. Their descriptions are generally not ESSENTIAL in a sentence – they clarify rather than provide essential information. E.g yesterday, very loudly, so quickly etc
    - - Strategies for presenting information. Can involve manipulating the order in which information is presented, for effect, or so that information gains prominence
      - Ways information can be ordered
        
        Clefting
        
        It-cleft
        
        A phrase that contains the third-person pronoun ‘it’ is moved to the front of the sentence and followed by the appropriate grammatical tense of the verb ‘to be’. The rest of the clause is connected with a relative pronoun such as ‘which’, ‘that’ or ‘who’.
        
        Psuedo-cleft (wh-cleft)
        
        Prominence is created through the use of a relative pronoun such as ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘where’, ‘when’ etc. at the beginning of the sentence or clause. A pseudo-cleft results in the prominent aspect of the sentence occurring at the end of a sentence or utterance rather than near the beginning
        
        Clefting involves the movement of a phrase to another position within the sentence and means to split or divide a clause to draw attention to what a writer or speaker wants their audience to focus on.
        
        Front Focus
        
        Fronting
        
        Moving a clausal element that usually comes at the end of a sentence to the front instead of the subject. This serves to bring particular information to the foreground
        
        Involves moving a phrase out of its usual position to the front of a sentence to give it prominence.
        
        Passive voice
        
        Anaphoric reference
        
        Created by adding a pronoun at the end of the sentence that refers to an earlier subject.
        E.g This McDonald’s, it was eaten by me.
        
        Inversion
        
        Swapping the subject verb object ordering to become verb subject (these always feature a subject unlike agentless which doesn’t have a subject) This serves to bring the information about what was done into the foreground, placing more emphasis on the action rather than the agent.
        
        Clefting
        
        End Focus
        
        Default SVO structure which allows for prominence to be placed on a particular phrasal element in a sentence by moving it to the end.
        
        Subject-verb-object
        
        Most sentences in English follow the rule of end focus anyway as the traditional subject-verb-object construction is the most common way of creating end focus. This is the most efficient and clear way of providing new information.
        
        Topic and comment
        
        A form of end focus where a sentence or paragraph starts with an overall topic, then a comment or new information is provided about this topic. Topic and comment typically occur over multiple sentences.
        
        Cataphoric reference
        
        Created by adding a pronoun to the start of a sentence that refers to a later subject. (can draw the attention to who did something)
        
        There construction
        
        The use of ‘there is…’, ‘there are…’, ‘there was…’ to draw the audiences attention to the subject of the sentence by prolonging its delivery. Sometimes, this also build suspense. (Normally we start with a subject but starting with there can build suspense)
- - - - Encouraging intimacy, solidarity and equality
      - Maintaining and challenging positive and negative face needs
      - Supporting in-group membership
      - Promoting linguistic innovation
      - Formal language
        
        Reinforcing social distance and authority
        
        Maintaining and challenging positive and negative face needs
        
        Establishing expertise
        
        Promoting social harmony, negotiating social taboos and building rapport
        
        Clarifying, manipulating or obfuscating
      - Informal language
  - - - Doesn't belong to Australian Standard English and changes over time (is transient) and is usually exclusive
    - - Are considered to be Australian English and are more permanent and inclusive than slang (e.g servo, ambo, arvo etc)
    - - Commonly used phrases with non-literal meanings (e.g its a piece of cake, let the cat out of the bag, out of the blue etc)
    - - Language that is deliberately offensive, controversial or insensitive and shouldn't be used in public contexts
  - - - The need to be liked, respected and included
    - - The need to be autonomous and act without imposition from others
  - - - Pronounciation
    - - Vocabulary and grammar (variation within a language)
    - - A dialect that is associated with a particular social group
    - - A dialect that is specific to a particular ethnic group
    - - A variety of language associated with a particular person