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**Assay on the veterinary management of Avian Chlamydiosis in domestic pet…

- - - - Detection and identification of Chlamydophila psittaci in asymptomatic parrots in Poland
        
        without any clinical signs of chlamydiosis
        
        An overall prevalence of 10.3% was observed using two different PCR assays
    - - Study on chlamydia in raptors and corvids.
        1128 samples from 341 raptors of 16 bird species and 253 corvids representing six species were examined using a stepwise diagnostic approach. Chlamydiaceae DNA was detected in 23.7% of the corvids and 5.9% of the raptors.
    - - 15.9% of the tested flocks were Chlamydiaceae-positive and three Chlamydia spp. were identified.
      - In addition, our results suggest the underestimation of psittacosis in the poultry industry, stressing the need for a veterinary vaccine and recommendations for zoonotic risk reduction strategies.
    - - This appears to be especially common in collections of budgerigars where infection rates have been reported as high as 30%
  - - - While many types of birds can be infected by C psittaci, in general, the literature suggests that human cases can most often occur after exposure to infected parrot-type birds kept as pets, especially cockatiels, parakeets, and conures.
    - - several studies found chlamydial strains classified as genetically intermediate between Chlamydia (C.) psittaci and C.abortus. Recently, a group of these intermediate strains was shown to form a separate species, i.e., C.buteonis
        https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32887370/
      - possible emergence of Cp. psittaci antibiotic-resistant strains
    - - The maximum incubation period is almost open ended, times from nine months to one and half years have been recorded.
      - A bird that has been through quarantine then, contrary to popular belief is not guaranteed to be free of psittacosis
  - - - negative result would not mean that the bird does not have the disease.
- - - - Isolation is considered conclusive and chlamydial-specific gene detection by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) regarded as an acceptable diagnostic alternative.Report on Avian Chlamydiosis as a zoonotic disease and risk reduction strategies
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    - - A number of reports on the use of PCR techniques to detect C. psittaci have
      - appeared in the literature [Hewinson et al., 1991; 1997; Messmer et al., 1997;
      - Moroney et al., 1998; Olsen et al., 1998; Everett et al., 1999b; McElnea and
      - Cross, 1999] and several different strategies have been used (Table 3). These
      - 9
      - tests are reported as able to detect C. psittaci DNA in samples of tissues, faeces
      - and choanal and cloacal swabs and are sensitive, rapid and have performed
      - better than traditional tissue staining methods and culture when employed for
      - specimens that have not been taken properly or mishandled [Moroney et al.,
      - 1998]. Several laboratories offer routine PCR tests for the diagnosis of
      - infections.
    - - Diagnosis of chlamydial infections has benefited greatly from the introduction of
      - molecular techniques, particularly PCR. These have allowed the detection,
      - identification and quantification of chlamydial infections, such as Cp. psittaci with
      - relative ease10,11 https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/563418/V_57i2.1.pdf