Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

PSY247 Research Practical, . - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Distortion of Consequences = it’s no big deal
      - Diffusion of Responsibility = believes that everyone steals little items at times
      - Advantageous Comparison = stealing a paper is nothing compared to what other crimes he could have committed/ what others have committed
      - Displacement of Responsibility = has seen workers steal papers, so why can’t he?
      - Moral Justification = overall, being a good, informed citizen is better/ more important than stealing a paper
      - Euphemistic Labeling = can plan to leave it in a cafe for someone else to use, then he’s only ‘borrowing it’
      - Dehumanisation = Starbucks is a large corporation that won’t notice a little paper gone
      - Attribution of Blame = or that they charge so much for a coffee that they deserve a paper being stolen here and there
  - - - Gino, F., & Galinsky, A. D. (2012). Vicarious dishonesty: When psychological closeness creates distance from one’s moral compass. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 119(1), 15-26.
        
        Gino and Galinsky extended this finding to show that priming someone to feel psychologically close to someone who cheated increased moral disengagement about cheating.
        These studies (Shu et al, 2011; Gino et al, 2012) provide the first evidence of moral disengagement as a motivated cognitive process: when it was in the participants’ interest to disengage from an internalized standard against cheating (either because they had cheated themselves, or felt close to someone who did), they were more likely to do so.
  - - - Worryingly, Waytz and Epley found that priming individuals to think about their social connections with others enabled dehumanization. They theorize that priming social connectedness satisfies the human motivation to connect, leaving room to think of others (particularly socially distal others) as less human, thus endorsing their mistreatment.
  - - - The workplace provides ample opportunities for moral disengagement: Organizations tend to be hierarchical, providing opportunities for the displacement of responsibility; work is often undertaken within teams, providing opportunities for the diffusion of responsibility; organizational
        membership automatically deﬁnes the boundaries of an in-group, providing opportunities for moral justiﬁcation (to protect the organization) and the cognitive minimization of the consequences of one’s actions for those who are outside the organization (and thus in an out-group).
      - Hypothesis 1: The propensity to morally disengage will be positively related to unethical behavior after controlling for other morally salient individual traits.
        
        Hypothesis 2: The propensity to morally disengage will be positively related to unethical behavior after controlling for deliberative moral reasoning capacity and moral philosophies.
        
        Hypothesis 3: The propensity to morally disengage will be positively related to unethical behavior after controlling for dispositional moral emotions.
        
        Hypothesis 4: The new measure of the propensity to morally disengage offered here will be positively related to unethical employee behavior after controlling for an existing measure of the propensity to morally disengage.
      - Across ﬁve different samples and using different dependent variables—that the propensity to morally disengage consistently emerges as a signiﬁcant predictor of a wide range of organizationally relevant unethical behaviors, explaining additional variance above and beyond many of the major alternative individual difference antecedents, provides compelling evidence that morally disengaged reasoning represents a critical factor in a wide range of unethical workplace behaviors.
      - The development and validation of a parsimonious, adult-oriented, easily administered measure of the propensity to morally disengage. Despite increasing interest in this construct in recent years (Aquino et al., 2007; Detert et al., 2008; Duffy et al., 2005; Moore, 2008b), research has been hampered by the lack of a consistently used, short, reliable, and clearly valid measure of the propensity to morally disengage.
        
        Aquino K, Reed A, Thau S, Freeman D. (2007). A grotesque and dark beauty: How moral identity and mechanisms of moral disengagement inﬂuence cognitive and emotional reactions to war. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,43, 385–392.
        Detert JR, Trevi˜no LK, Sweitzer VL. (2008). Moral disengagement in ethical decision making. Journal of Applied Psychology,93, 374–391.
        Duffy MK, Aquino K, Tepper BJ, Reed A, O’Leary-Kelly A. (2005, November). Moral disengagement and social identiﬁcation: When does being similar result in harm doing? Paper presented at the Academy of Management Annual Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii.
        Moore C. (2008). Moral disengagement in processes of organizational corruption. Journal of Business Ethics,80, 129–139
      - We believe that the propensity to morally disengage will have stronger effects on behavior because moral identity’s effect requires an activated moral self-concept (Aquino & Reed, 2002). However, many of the mechanisms of moral disengagement disrupt the activation of the self-concept by, for example, focusing on the victim (dehumanization, attribution of blame) or by
        reducing personal agency (diffusion and displacement of responsibility).
        
        Aquino K, Reed A. (2002). The self-importance of moral identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1423–1440.
      - Cognitive moral development (CMD) is considered theoretically important to the judgment phase of ethical decision making—that is, the point when an individual decides what is right or wrong in a particular situation.
      - Machiavellianism has been shown to be positively related to many transgressive behavioral tendencies, including antisocial behavior, lying, and willingness to exploit others (Christie & Geis, 1970; Sakalaki, Richardson, & Th´epaut, 2007), as well as to a broad range of unethical decisions in a recent meta-analysis (Kish-Gephartet al., 2010).
        
        Christie R, Geis FL. (1970). Studies in Machiavellianism. New York, NY: Academic Press.
        Sakalaki M, Richardson C, Th´epaut Y. (2007). Machiavellianism and economic opportunism. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 37, 1181–1190
        Kish-Gephart JJ, Harrison DA, Trevi˜no LK. (2010). Bad apples, bad cases, and bad barrels: Meta-analytic evidence about sources of unethical decisions at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 1–31
      - Moral identity describes the extent to which one’s self-concept incorporates the importance of being a moral person (Aquino & Reed,2002). Moral identity has a strong relationship with prosocial behavior and has also been linked with reduced unethical behavior (Aquino & Reed, 2002; Shao, Aquino, & Freeman, 2008).
        
        Aquino K, Reed A. (2002). The self-importance of moral identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 142, 3–1440.
        Shao R, Aquino K, Freeman D. (2008). Beyond moral reasoning: A review of moral identity research and its implications for business ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 18, 513–540
- - - - The dual-hormone hypothesis posits that the effect of testosterone on social behaviour is moderated by cortisol. The present study tested this hypothesis with a competitive reactive aggression paradigm in 53 healthy undergraduate women. Salivary cortisol and testosterone were assessed at baseline. Participants were personally insulted and subsequently given the opportunity to retaliate by administering blasts of white noise to the provocateur. Participants were randomly assigned to win or lose the aggressive competition. Basal testosterone positively predicted reactive aggression and state dominance, but only among participants with high concentrations of basal cortisol. The corresponding, reverse pattern was found for state submissiveness. Winners also had higher concentrations of testosterone than losers following the aggressive competition.
      - Hermans, E. J., Ramsey, N. F., & van Honk, J. (2008). Exogenous testosterone enhances responsiveness to social threat in the neural circuitry of social aggression in humans. Biological psychiatry, 63(3), 263-270.
        
        Exogenous Testosterone Enhances Responsiveness to Social Threat in the Neural Circuitry of Social Aggression in Humans
        
        Background:
        In a range of species, the androgen steroid testosterone is known to potentiate neural circuits involved in intraspecific aggression. Disorders of impulsive aggression in humans have likewise been associated with high testosterone levels, but human evidence for the link between testosterone and aggression remains correlational and inconclusive.
        
        Methods:
        Twelve female participants underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging during three sessions while viewing stimuli differing in social threat value: angry and happy facial expressions. The first session served to establish associations between baseline hormone levels and neural activation. Participants were retested in a second and third session after placebo-controlled sublingual administration of .5 mg testosterone.
        
        Results:
        Findings demonstrate consistent activation to angry versus happy faces in areas known to be involved in vertebrate reactive aggression, such as the amygdala and hypothalamus. Suprathreshold clusters were also found in the orbitofrontal cortex (Brodmann area 47), a region implicated in impulse control in humans. Baseline endocrine profiles of high testosterone and low cortisol were associated with stronger activation in subcortical structures. Neural responses in most activated regions were more persistent after testosterone administration than after placebo.
        
        Conclusions:
        These data demonstrate that testosterone enhances responsiveness in neural circuits of social aggression. Based on animal literature, it is argued that actions of testosterone on subcortical reactive aggression circuits give rise to this effect. Implications for our understanding of the pathophysiology of disorders of impulsive aggression are discussed.
      - Probst, F., Golle, J., Lory, V., & Lobmaier, J. S. (2018). Reactive aggression tracks within‐participant changes in women's salivary testosterone. Aggressive behavior, 44(4), 362-371.
        
        Reactive aggression tracks within-participant changes in women’s salivary testosterone
        
        The relation between testosterone and aggression has been relatively well documented in men, but it is less well understood in women. Here we assessed the relationship between salivary testosterone and reactive aggression (i.e., rejection rate for unfair offers) in the Ultimatum Game. Forty naturally cycling women were tested twice, once in the late follicular phase (around ovulation) and once during the luteal phase. Ovulation was determined using urine test strips measuring luteinizing hormone levels. Salivary samples were assayed for testosterone, estradiol, progesterone and cortisol at both test sessions. There was no association with the cycle, but multilevel modeling revealed a significant within-participant association between testosterone and rejection rate for extremely unfair offers (i.e. high reactive aggression), indicating that women showed greater reactive aggression when their testosterone levels were higher. Additionally, we found that women with relatively high individual concentrations of testosterone were more likely to reject extremely unfair offers than women with relatively low concentrations of testosterone. This study is the first to demonstrate that women react more aggressively in response to provocation when their testosterone level is high than when their testosterone is low, suggesting that testosterone plays an important role in the regulation of women’s aggressive behaviour following social provocation.
- - - - Their P3 amplitude response to neutral faces suggests reduced inhibition of angry face distractors.
      - Physical aggression significantly correlated with attentional bias.
      - Physical aggressors’ attention is biased to angry faces, characterized by a distinct ERP signature. More aggressive people show similar P3 amplitudes to angry and neutral faces.
      - Attentional bias to angry faces in individuals with higher physical aggression is characterized by a distinctive ERP signature.