Micro System

The immediate environment, "where proximal processes operate to produce and sustain development."of a child. E.g Home, school, peer group, and workplace.
However this is reliant on the "content and structure of the Microsystem"

Meso Systems

The link between two or more settings, e.g "the relationship between home/school, home/workplace". "A mesosystem is a system of the microsystems". E.g "the developmental impact of two-way communication and participation in decision-making by parents and teachers."

A view that "outdoors-as-adventure" has historically dominated "outdoors-as-learning" Boyes (2012,p.37-38). The concept that outdoor learning can be part of an everyday classroom as an integrated approach rather than a great, dangerous adventure. This leads to "reimagining outdoor education in the primary school context".(Cosgriff, 2016) NEED EXAMPLES OF THIS Teachers need to embrace concepts like being "a learner alongside (their) students, and spending regular time outdoors getting to know the local community". Time was also a key concept where "in order to know and connect to a place, you need to regularly be in and exploring that place" TEACHER BECOMING THE STUDENT "The culture of the school in general and the leadership wass specifically singled out to be an essential ingredient" to reconceptualising outdoor learning.
"Apprenticing ourselves to outdoor spaces" (Wattchow and Brown, 2011, p190)

Health and Physical Education has become a 'one size fits all approach', and teachers need to remind themselves of the relevant pedagogies. An "overwhelming array of outside providers and programs on offer to schools and teachers" leaving teachers to forget the importance of outdoor spaces and the rich resources they can bring to teaching and learning experiences. Link to digital tech outside providers TEACHER TRAINING - In order to embrace the reconceptuatlism of outdoor learning teachers will need to be open-minded, reflective and critical of their own practice and foster a "willingness to let go of control" (Cosgriff, 2016) RELATIONSHIPS 🚩

Motivation and Self Efficacy developed in students through giving them autonomy and voice about their local environment. Participation in spaces that mean something to them gives them the motivation 🚩 to learn. LINK TO INTERPRETISM "If places, and our relationship with them, contribute to individual and communal identity, how might outdoor educators encourage and enable students to feel safe and comfortable in place(s)?" "How can we expect students to care for places if they have no attachment nor commitment" (Cosgriff, 2016) MOTIVATION and COLLABORATION in a broader concept of being a citizen of the world, and having a responsibility to care for it. "empower students fo today/now and tomorrow/future"(Cosgriff, 2016) 🚩

New Zealand are rethinking what outdoor education means and reconceptualising the curriculum to reflect this development. In Aotearoa NZ outdoor learning is coined as "curriculum-based teaching and learning that extends the four walls of the classroom" (MOE, 2009, p.6). They continue to define outdoor learning as "experiences in the school grounds, local community and environment and places further afield" (MOE, 2009, p.7) A 🚩 holistic approach is taken to teaching and learning through an integration of four underlying principles to the curriculum called "Hauora, a holistic Maori philosophy" (MOE, 2007, p22). They are "personal health and physical development, movement concepts and motor skills, relationships with other people, and healthy communities and environment".(Cosgriff, 2016) "Students' desire to care for the reserve and its inhabitants appeared to fall out of this in a natural rather than predetermined way"(Cosgriff, 2016, p.350)

Use of the school grounds as a physical outdoor resource to break down outdoor learning barriers By "turning to the local and embracing outdoor education as being learning in, for and about Rimu Reserve ameliorated a host of resource, funding, equity, professional barriers" (Cosgriff, 2016) "students were actively involved in safety management processes, taking increasing self-responsibility for decision-making as their familiarity and knowledge of Rimu Reserve" grew.

“fieldwork, properly conceived, adequately planned, well taught and affectively followed up, offers learners opportunities to develop their knowledge and skills in ways that add value to their everyday experiences in the classroom”

When Mittelstaedt, Sanker and Vanderveer (1999) conducted research on a week long outdoor learning experience programme for children in the US, they found that “even though the children arrived with a positive attitude towards the environment they left with an even stronger positive attitude” (page 147)

A direct link between time spent outdoors and attitude towards the learning environment is echoed by Emmon’s (1997, p.342), who found the length of time that students spent outdoors appeared to be important in the reduction of negative perceptions of the environment including fears”.

Ballantyne and Packer (2002, p.228) argued that “the use of worksheets, note taking and reports were all unpopular with (their) students and did not appear to contribute greatly to (their) environmental learning” I would develop their opinion further to suggest that instead of over-structuring lessons, the children should be directly and physically engaged with the learning environment to aid their learning.

If attitude appears to be a barrier to engaging children in learning could digital technology be used as a solution to motivate and improve self efficacy of the next generation of ‘digital natives’.

Ballantyne and Packer (2002, p.228) argued that “the use of worksheets, note taking and reports were all unpopular with (their) students and did not appear to contribute greatly to (their) environmental learning” I would develop their opinion further to suggest that instead of over-structuring lessons, the children should be directly and physically engaged with the learning environment to aid their learning.

Could digital technology be used as a tool to bridge ‘the world of our physical surroundings’, outdoor learning and ‘the world of the school’, indoor learning . (Uzzel at al, 1995)

Digital Observation Technology Skills DOTS

“Integrates mobile, digital technology into outdoor environmental education programming” (Hougham et al, 2018, p.155)

“portable kits of hand held digital tools in experiential lessons in which students collects data and observations about their surroundings outdoors” (Hougham et al, 2018, p.155)

“Allow students to use technology to form deeper connections to experiential, environmental curricula that emphasise student inquiry and observation.” (Hougham et al, 2018, p.155)

By appreciating and comprehending the learner’s landscape, an educator can more effectively engage their students. (Visser & Visser-Valfrey, 2008)

“educators are digital immigrants who may be significantly less comfortable navigating digital technology than their digital native students” (Hougham et al, 2018, p.156)

A balance to be struck between “retaining the connection to place that outdoor, experiential learning promotes and providing formal educational audience with modern stem curricula." (Hougham et al, 2018, p.156)

how can we bridge the gap between the “plugged in” generation of digital natives, who feel more comfortable using digital technology and what is perceived to be “unplugged” outdoor, experiential learning? ((Hougham et al, 2018

"Hougham et al (2018) encourage the use of DOTS approach to overcome the pitfalls of integrating digital technology by “selecting only the technological components necessary to encourage engagement”.

“These exercises scaffolder student’s experience so they better understand the art and science of observing before they are handed a digital tool to supplement, document, and share their inquiry with others.” Link to Child Development. Schemas – Piaget - ZPD - Vgotsky ( Scaffold from Prior Learning). p.167

Vygotsky ZPD - "The tools also enable a teacher-as-facilitator role and put the student at the center of their experience and learning" p.167

"Provides this tech-savvy generation of students with a new way to engage with then natural world". p.167

“Students are given the minimum tool necessary to facilitate engagement with concepts that are inaccessible without the tool”
Appropriate use of digital tools. "task-technology-fit" p.165 Only then can the digital technology “Adequately support the individual performance of its user” (Goodhue & Thompson, 1995) e.g the students who couldn't see cell structure of leaves with the naked eye.

A student's attitude is crucial to the success of using the digital technology, if they aren't invested they won't believe in it, or have the motivation to use and enjoy it's benefits. Important to give children choice/autonomy here.

It's equally important to have traditional educational tools so children have an element of building their learning (SOLOS Taxonomy) For example they were able to observe shape, colour and texture when holding the leaves, and thought deeper about the scientific structure of the leaves on a microlevel which wouldn't be possible without the aid of digi tech. p,165

“Many students arrive in classrooms with more experience using technology to play than to learn” p.166 IS it the teachers role to show them how they are connected? MONTESSORI LINK.

Teachers should combine this strategy with their existing curricula for accessibility and ease.p.166

“By encouraging youth to take and use technology outside educators can harness learners’ existing modes of interaction with the world to teach them scientific research skills and enrich their experiences in the natural world.” p.166

Studies such as these aim to inspire teachers to shift the attitudes of their students about outdoor learning by propelling their “experiential outdoor curriculum into the digital age.” p.167

"Positive relationships produce good experiences, and good experiences promote positive relationships" (Yates, 2013, p.21)

Dr Willingham, who undertook a famous survey of childrens’ attitudes towards school in the 1920’s argues that on average, “they either tolerate school or are mildly positive towards the experience.” (Yates, 2013, p.3)

“Student apathy and lack of motivation are frequently cited as factors underlying teachers stress burnout and lack of job satisfaction” (Yates, 2013, p.3)

A South Australian study shows that mothers encouraging children to take greater responsibility through their parental strategies “played a key role inconsistency between home and school”. It can be deducted that when parents and teachers can create congruence between their management styles, the student is more likely to accept the responsibilities of school, as they feel supported and empowered. Mention hierarchy of needs here?

"The mind is not designed for thinking" (Willingham, 2009, p.3)

Investing effort requires children to weigh up thinking "in relation to other demands being placed upon the mind" and their "mental availability".

So if we want motivation to increase we need to consider how we relay "appropriate information" and provide "sufficient cognitive resources" that allow them to manage problems effectively. (Yates, 2013, p.6)

Humans are "naturally curious animals" (Yates, 2013, p.6) But we strive to close "worthwhile (knowledge) gaps, not chasms", meaning that we draw upon our prior knowledge to select which areas require our mental resources and if they are worthy of spending our mental energy. Teachers must show students "the means by which is can be closed" and avoid discouraging natural curiosity and therefore motivation. (Yates, 2013, p.6)

This view supports the importance of prior knowledge when considering the motivation of a child, and how to increase it. Therefore a teacher must have a clear understanding of the prior knowledge of their class, taking the time to scaffold them into the learning. Vgotsky and Zones of Proximal Development Awareness of the prior learning allows teachers to see where new learning will occur and find the space to scaffold them into new learning. LINK TO L&T VALUE 3 "the importance of prior experience and learning"

As we enter a new digital era of education, teachers need to be able to adapt their practice to incorporate digital technologies. The extent of which this occurs in schools varies depending on how forward-thinking they are/where they trained/teachers personal beliefs.

• The study revealed how children interact with different forms of digital technologies to determine how effective their learning experience was. It revealed Coronavirus pandemic has exposed the need for teachers' application of this knowledge

• Assumptions made about digital technologies (p.444 Livingstone 2012, states 2) need to be reconsidered/reviewed, and a critical view applied to the pedagogic relevance/benefits to the class. (p.454 for quote)

• A tension exists between technology designer, teachers and learners, where the "commerical digital resources (are) promoted as being educational". Suggstion that perhaps there needs to be a COLLABORATION between these parties to aid the development of how digital technology can benefit children's learning. Although intentions are good, the outcome could have detremental effects on their education in the forseeable future. p 454. "digital resources themselves, are culturally bound objects that reflect and balance the designers' beliefs about learning alongside commercial viability, which requires the educator to be savvy in their approach" "Teachers are experts in pedagogy. Most designers of digital resources are not." We wouldn't tell a coder how to build the app, so why would they assume they know how to teach/ apply correct pedagogies to the design?"

• The study highlighted the importance of STUDENT-TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS in the classroom and how scaffolding is necessary to lead to deeper thinking. Evidence from studies 1, 2, 3. (p.453 "Principle 1: digital resources cannot replace the work of a teacher") "Digital materials or artefacts cannot replace pquality pedagogy or quality relationships" and "it was insufficient in all cases in providing a learning-rich environment, which meant anticipated outcomes were not reached."

• Home education creates a disparity in digital literacy (p444-445, "lower SES backgrounds were more likely engaged with technology through gaming and virtual world play" whereas "higher SES backgrounds generally engaged with inline searches") INFORMAL ENVIRONMENT

"Digital Technology can undermine the aim of being outdoors, but it can also create opportunities to enhance outdoor learning experiences." p.155

• Teachers should consider and review the "intended and unintended consequences of digital technology use (or non-use) in ourdoor experiential learning."

• According to Hills and Thomas they should reflect on 3 aspects within their framework: "pedagogical considerations, affordances of digital technology and consequences of decision."

- Increased availability and affordabilty e.g cameras, location devices, phones, drones, tablets, coding software and augmented reality. The range of digital device is predicted to increase in the future. But are these tools that will critically engage students in learning, or are they accidentally encouraging distraction.

• Is outdoor learning on of the "few remaining refuges from digital technology" and should we protect it? (Shultis, 2012) p.155

• It could be argued that "mobile digital technologies are fast becoming. the new 'normal'" and by excluding them we aren't providing an education that will prepare students for a future that could be technologically weighted. (Bruce & Hogan, 1998) p.157. The new tools once upon a time were walking boots and compasses, is it our responisiblity to stay updated with new tools to use within our learning environments?

• Cuthbertson et al (2004) defined digital technology as a "double-edged sword" with is an appropriate metaphor for the literature debate of its use within outdoor learning.

A. Pedagogical Considerations

Context, does digital tech suit the learning taking place? Is the outdoor experience being viewed as a subject or method? This may help inform if Dig Tech is appropriate

Aimsof the session - is a learning outcome specifically about tech?

The User - will digital tech give them more control and minimise negative impacts?

Facilitator Attributes Is the teacher up to date? Confident using the tech, could have negative impact if they aren't

Learner Attributes Are they age appropriate for the child? Otherwise digi tech could become a barrier to engaging with task. Can the teacher control elements of this?

Available Resources The use of digi tech could mean leaving behind heavy, cumbersome resources like large maps and books. This relies on having the funding and support to use digi tech within your learning environment

B. Location: risk and adventure vs safety and security

1. GPS - and digi tech info.
Pros Safe and secure as students always know where they are. Enhances map reading skills and gives a sense of autonomy and empowerment. Immediate information about their environemnt, this is also useful for enquiries.
Cons Do students loose a sense of wilderness about the outdoors? Over reliance on location devices/tech? Cause more accidents as a consequence?

2. Attention: direct experience vs mediation Cognitive focus of the teacher and learner. Relationships Augmented reality, smart glasses, simulations and digital overlay. Does this help facilitate an interpretation of the environemnt that is engaging, or can it cause a barriar between the environment and student, creating a false indirect experience.

3. Communication: solitude vs connectivity for learning
How much should we be collaborating? Digi Tech provides opportunities for us to pass on data, share photos and discuss/reflect experiences. This can lead to deeper learning and allow students to exchange viewpoints and experiences. It could be argued this extends the learning of the environment in a benefinical way. Should solitude/independence be a part of outdoor learning, if so why does tech threaten this? Is this realistic in a primary environment?

4. Information: Unknown and discovery vs accessing knowledge
Access to the internet/digital devices and apps. How much information should students be able to have accesse to? Unlimited? Increases student centrered learning with less reliance on the teacher. Or at the opposite end, it denies the student of 'the unkown' and personal discovery of different parts of the world. Are laptops a 'digital swiss army knife'? (Hodges, 2016)

C. Consequences of Decisions
Teachers can decide if overall the tech is worth their use - are there detrimental impacts or does it change the learning environment for the better.

Redefinition
Does the tech allow you do something that was previously inconceivable?

Modification
Tech allows significant task redesign

Augmentation
Tech acts as a direct tool substitute with functional improvement

Substitution
Direct tool substitute, no functional change

"The focus of life has been to assimilate the tools of the culture in a such a complex way as to store vital elements of information within their personal memory banks" (Yates, 2013, p.8)

The ultimate goal to engage children should surely therefore be to "assimilate the information given." (Yates, 2013, p.8) (allowing them to find a way to absorb our teaching through various means.)

Summary: In Yates's pesimistic (2013) view a teacher is confronted with a room full of students "whose minds are designed for... saving themselves to think" (Yates, 2013, p.9), so they must seek to close knowledge gaps by considering prior learning, their ZPD and scaffolding them.

Prensky describes teachers as digital immigrants ‘who speak an outdated language’ from the pre-digital age and who ‘are struggling to teach a population that speaks an entirely new language.’ (2001, p.2)

Covid has proven the resilience of both teachers and students, but with so much exposure and reliance of the use of digital technology to deliver the curriculum how has this affected the way students learn?

Prensky presents an extreme view that describes digital natives as ‘a new type of animal’ who can only learn and develop if we radically change the way we deliver the curriculum and the education resources we provide in order to create ‘online study opportunities.’ (Hattie & Yates, 2013, p.197)

Hattie and Yates conclude the ‘ICT resource is does not automatically facilitate deep meaningful mental processing’ or ‘alterations in the child’s information processing’ (2013, p.198). They are stating that the way children think can’t be altered by the aid of digital technology; knowledge acquisition is critical to learning and places the teacher student relationship at the centre of this process.

There are some collaborative benefits of digital technology that don’t translate to online learning such as the effective use of computers in pairs.

Looking forward an awareness of the ‘cut and paste’ approach must be understood by both teacher and student in order to achieve depth of understanding. (Hattie and Yates, 2013, p.199) Examples of this method can be found in students aptitude to "evaluate the quality of the surface information that dominates the web.", however this skill hasn't demonstrated a higher level of thinking. QUOTE Solo's taxonomy (Hattie and Yates, 2013, p.198) Use class examples

"Children learn best through independent discovery" (Inhelder & Piaget, 1969) and that by "exploring their environemnt and making their own discoveries, children construct new knowledge" (Wood, 1998)

"Learning occurs through interpersonal connections in a social environment, where adults and peers support and promote children's learning"

"In developing countries, primary school indoor classrooms often feature poor physical environments for learning; for example, poor lighting seating, and visitbility are common" (Khan et al, 2019) Leads to reduced opportunities in indepedednt exploration and cooperation to occur naturally.