Ch.16 Genes and the Genetic Basis of Metabolism & Development

Concepts

Storing Genetic Information

Protein Synthesis

Analysis of Genes & Recombinant DNA Techniques

plants

cells

metabolism

enzymes

microtubules

proteins

respiration

amino acid synthesis

shape

genes

difference

mitosis

identical

enzymes

pigments

petal cells

not

roots

wood

bark

synthesize

sclerenchyma

enzymes

producing

lignifying

secondary walls

inactive

pathways

parenchyma

differential activation of genes

coding

synthesizing

turn on

unique

proper

structure

proteins

correct

DNA

linear

unbranched

polymer

deoxynucleotide

A, T, G, C

monomers

gene

codes

protein

amino acid sequence

plant growth

environment

protoplasm

morphogenesis

cues

moisture

germination

flowering

gravity

survival

chemical messengers

nucleus

genes

location

DNA sequence analysis

recombinant DNA techniques

genetic engineering

understanding

stimulus

perception

change

features

resistance

nutrition

Protecting the Genes

DNA

Messenger RNA

information

DNA

exposed

enzymes

substrates

activators

control factors

site

protein synthesis

damage

replaceable

copies

DNA

enclosed

nucleus

nuclear envelope

cytosol

interphase

enzymes

plastids

mitochondria

protection

DNA

less than 40

50-100 genes

histones

DNA

inert

resisitant

proteins

nuclei

H1, H2A, H2B, H3, H4

plants

animals

fungi

algae

protozoans

essential

aggregates

wrapped DNA

nucleosome

tightly coiled

chromatin

dense

impenetrable

DNA

inert

DNases

DNA digesting enzymes

not

plastids

mitochondria

prokaryotes

genetic code

codons

triplets

64

nucleotides

mRNA

stop codons

UAA

signal

UGA

UAG

stopping

protein synthesis

start codon

AUG

signal

start

protein synthesis

universal

one exception

degenerate

protects

multiple codons

amino acids

evolution

one ancestor

Structure of Genes

The-Chemical-Structures-of-DNA-RNA-Aug-2018

structural region

codes

amino acid sequence

promoter #

region

regulates

mRNA

synthesis

"upstream"

5' side

varies

length

hundreds

nucleotides

TATA box

short

6-8 base pairs

A & T

damaged

mutation

experimental

treatment

doesn't bind

RNA ploymerase II

enhancer elements

"upstream"

several hundred base pairs

eukaryotic

promoter region

binds

chemical messengers

exons

expressed codons

introns

not expressed

intervene

between

exons

plants

2 or 3

Transcription

DNA

creates RNA

two strands

seperate

short distance

free nucelotides

diffuse

rapid

30 nucleotides/sec

pair

DNA strands

RNA polymerase

binds

synthesizes

RNA molecule

wrap

double helix

acts

stop signal

DNA nucleotides

self complimentary

hairpin loop

hydrogen bonds

kink

transcribes

introns

exons

heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA)

modified

nuclear enzymes

recongnized

cut out

degraded

free ribonucloetides

spliced

RNA molecule

codes

amino acids

alternative splicing

introns

removed

exons

spliced

together

removed

surprise

gene

code

two or more

enzymes

means

gene

produces

2 or more

mRNA

with exons

shorter

missing

exons

translated

normal

properties

similar

different

proteins

longer

not rare

carefully controlled

ribosomes

bind

mRNA

read

codons

catalyze

polymerization

amino acids

order

gene specified

transcription

construct

proteins

two subunits

small

large

composed of

proteins

RNA

one

rRNA

three types

rRNA

eukaryotic

greater than 80

eukaryotes

cytoplasm

large

dense

80s

prokaryotes

plastids

mitochondria

smaller

lighter

705

tightly grouped

one promoter

transcription

nucleolus

produces

RNA

long

cut

three pieces

needed

cells

genes

rRNA

dilpoid

amplified

rRNA

tRNA

necessary

amino acid

interaction

codon

inadequate

anticodon

three-nucleotide

sequence

amino acid attatchment site

3' end

CCA

amino acid activation

precise

enzyme

reconginizes

tRNA

amino acid

attatchment

bases

A,U,G,C

protein synthesis

mRNA translation

initiation

elongation

termination

ribosome

synthesizes

protein

codon AUG

eukaryotic iniation factors

methonine

binds

proteins

subunits

carried

two types

tRNA

properties

differ

initiator tRNA

binds

small

subunit

before mRNA

small

complex

bind

mRNA

large subunit

finds

start codon

AUG

positions

subunit

GMOs

plants

resist

herbacide

glyphosphate #

inhibits

enzymes

lethal

no pollution

evolution

frameshift error

nucleotides

read

wrongly

p channel

a channel

protein

amino acid

ribosomes

mRNA

A channel

codon

tRNA

P channel

protein chain

surrounds

two amino acids

attatches

amino acid

forming

protein

3 amino acids

process

ends

reaching

stop codon

stop codon

release factor

stimulates

large subunit

enzymes

initiates

reaction

normal

Control of Protein Levels

transcription factor

control

gene activity

proteins

bind

promoter

enhancer

activate

genes

trans-acting factors

bind

DNA

from

somewhere else

cis-acting factors

promoters

enhancers

TATA boxes

micro-RNAS

expression

genes

recognizable

-RNA

recognize

DNA

bind

hnRNA

mRNA

Nucleic Acid Hybridization

seperation

using

heat

DNA denaturation

DNA melting

reformation

cooling

reannealing

DNA hybridization

used

DNA

relatedness

copies

genes #

nucleus

slow process

Restriction Endonucleases

bacterial

enzymes

recognizes

binds

nucleotides

cleaves

DNA

palindrome

read

forward

and

backwards

cuts

unaligned

DNA Ligase

sequence

recognized

restriction

endonuclease

repair

enzyme

DNA

prepared

recombinant DNA

Identifying DNA Fragments

Recombinant-DNA-technology

evolutionary studies

restriction map

10-20 fragments

seperated

gel electrophoresis

plastid DNA

stained

number

reveals

Psti sites

base pairs

restriction fragment length polymorphism

differing

fragment profiles

2 species

no relation

mutation

extra base pairs

quick

inexpensive

easy

physiological studies

convenient

plant studies

large

protein

quantity

mRNA

mixed

reversed transcriptase

virus

enzyme

synthesizes

DNA

RNA

template

complementary DNA

complementary

exons

gene

synthesized

using

floursecent nucleotides

expression profiling

cDNAs

gene expression

examines

development

compares

DNA microarray

orderly matrix

species

slides

microscope

DNA Cloning

Fragments

DNA

bacteria

plasmid

short

circular

DNA

in bacteria

acts

chromosome

engineered

genetically

vectors

ideal

fragment

DNA

carriers

yeast artificial chromosomes

contains

essential

yeast

chromosome

parts

Polymerase Chain Reaction

enzymes

amplified

heated

helix

seperation

2x

copies

sequence

DNA polymerase

primer DNA

cloned

rapidly

cDNA

made

mRNA

few

cells

DNA sequencing

chain termination method

DNA

cloned

seperated

4x

pyrosequencing method

DNA

enzymes

replications

open-reading frame

region

gene-like

features

databases

sequencing entire genomes

organelles

extracted

DNA

isolated

cloned

divided

batches

differing

endonucleases

1

no order

3

2

matches

verifications

Genetic Engineering of Plants

new

genes

inserted

ti-plasmid

agrobacterium tumefasciens

added

genes

antibiotic resisitance

CRISPR-Cas9

tool

editing

DNA

binds

specific

sites

cleaves

design

synthesize

inserts

new

DNA

new

exciting

Cross-Link Connection: Using a gene from fireflies, once inserted into a plant cell the cell was induced to grow a full plant. This gene apparently had a promoter that is normally activated in every cell, we know this because all the cells are glowing. Using genetic engineering and connecting different promoters we can study when and where each promoter is usually active.

Cross-Link Connection: Because all body cells are produced by mitosis they all have the same genes. Certain metabolism genes are active in all cells but don't become active until differentiation

Cross-Link Connections: Because of the use of glyphosphate as a pesticide plants have created a resistance. A small number of plants have started transporting glyphosphate through their leaf tips which leaves them unharmed. Because of the evolution these plants will be more adapted to their environment and out live the susceptible plants.