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Chapter 16: Genes & Genetic Basis of Metabolism & Development -…
Chapter 16: Genes & Genetic Basis of Metabolism & Development
Concepts
Plants are composed of numerous types of cells
Differential Acivation of Genes: the underlying developmental process when each cell differentiates & develops unique proteins
Protein Synthesis
DNA, or Deoxyribonucleic acid
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Gene: region of DNA responsible fo rcoding amino acid sequence
DNA Sequence Analysis
Recombinant DNA techniques
Genetic engineering
Storing genetic Information
Protecting the Genes
Messenger RNA (mRNA): messenger molecule that carries information from DNA to the sire of protein synthesis
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Nucleosome: histones form aggregates and DNA wraps around them, formin spherical structures.
Chromatin: DNA protein structure formed when his one proteins bind to DNA
DNases: (DNAses) DNA-Digesting enzymes
The Genetic Code
Codons
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Stop Codons
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Start Codons
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Degenerate
The Structure of Genes
Structural region
Promoter
TATA Box
RNA Ploymerase II
Enhancer elements
Promoter Region
Exons
Introns
Transcription of Genes
Transcription
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Hairpin Loop
Heterogeneous Nuclear RNA (hnRNA)
Poly (A) tail
Alternative Splicing : Someties only introns are removed and exons are spliced together. At other times, one or more exons are removed along with the introns.
Protein Synthesis
Ribosomes
Ribosomes: small particles that “read” the genetic mesage in the mRNA & construct proteins
Ribsomal RNA (rRNA): subunits
80S Ribosomes: larger ribosomes found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotes
70S ribosomes: smaller ribosomes of plastids, mitochondria, and prokaryotes
tRNA
Transfer RNA (tRNA): amino acids carried to ribosomes by ribonucleic acids
Anticodon: the nucleotide triplet complementary to the codon of mRNA
Amino Acid attachment site
Amino acid activation: special class of enzyme that recognizes each tRNA & attaches correct amino acid to it.
mRNA Translation
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Initiation of Translation
Translation: synthesis of protein molecule by ribosomes under guidance of mRNA
Initiation: Beginning of protein synthesis
Eukaryotic Initiation factor as (eILFs): proteins that bind to small subunit
mRNA Sequencing
Frameshift error: reading nucleotides in the wrong sets of three
Elongation of Protein Chain
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P channel: ( P for protein) small subunit already contacting initiator tRNA
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A Channel:(A for amino acid)
Termination of Translation: when a codon is pulled into the A channel, elongation cannot occur
Control of Protein Levels
Transcription Factors: proteins that bind to promoter or enhancer regions and activate genes.
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Trans-acting factors: transcription factors that come from somewhere else and bind to DNA
Cis-acting Factors: promoters, enhancers, and TATA boxes are part of the
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Micro-RNAs: short RNA molecules that control gene expression
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Analysis of genes and Recombinant DNA Techniques
Nucleic Acid Hyridization
DNA Melting/DNA Denaturation: separation which produces a solution of single-stranded DNA molecules
DNA Hybridization/ Reannealing: slow cooling of mixture of short DNA molecules such that complementary strands encounter each other and hydrogen bond into double helices
Restriction Endonucleases: a class of bacterial enzymes
Palindromes: sequence recognized by a restriction endonuclease is present in both strands, running opposite directions
DNA ligase: DNA repair enzyme
Recombinant DNA : DNA constructed from pieces of DNA from several sources
Identifying DNA Fragments
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Evolutionary Studies
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) : if two species are not closely related, their fragment profiles differ
Restriction Map: visible fragments of DNA using gel electrophoresis
Physiological Studies
Reverse Transcriptase: virus enzyme that synthesis DNA using RNA as a template
Complementary DNA (cDNA): complimentary to exons of genes
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Expression Profiling: uses cDNA to examine gene expressions during development or to compare development in one species to that in another
DNA microarray: a microscope slide with numerous dots, each being a fragment of BNA fro ma genome being studied
DNA Cloning: method of placing DNA fragments into bacteria
Plasmid: Short, circular piece of DNA that occurs in bacteria and acs like a tiny bacterial chromosome
Vector: Gentically engineered plasmids to be the ideal DNA Fragment
Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YACs): contains essential pearts of a yeast chromosome + genes for drug resistance and parts fo plasmid that can accept experimental DNA cut.
The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): technique for DNA cloning, where only enzymes are used.
DNA Sequencing
Chain Terminiation Method: DNA to be sequenced is first cloned to obtain large sample and then divided into 4 batches. Each batch receives enzymes necessary to carry out DNA duplication.
Pyrosequencing Method:DNA is added to a solution with all enzymes for replication
Open-Reading Frame (ORF): if a region is found to have genelike features
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Genetic Engineering
Ti Plasmid: a plasmid from the bacterium
Agrobacterium tumeaciens
that is commonly used vector for recombinant DNA studies in plants
CRISPR-Cas9: new tool for precisely editing DNA . A protein complex that binds a short piece of RNA (guide RNA)
Genetic Enfineering and Evolution
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Glyphosphate: herbicide (roundUp)
Genetically Modified (GM): genetically engineered plants
Emergent Properties
Emergent property: a property that exists only in a number of units but doesn’t exist at all in any one unit.
