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Class 12: THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY Part 1 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - oxen were used for ploughing.
      - terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali (Haryana).
      - evidence of a
        ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan),
      - The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that two different crops were grown together.
      - Traces of canals have been found at
        the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan
      - water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat)
      - Processing of food required grinding equipment as well as vessels
        for mixing, blending and cooking.
        
        made of stone, metal
        and terracotta.
      - Mohenjodaro, the best-known Harappan site
      - Saddle querns were used for grain and for for pounding herbs and spices for making curries.
  - - - roads and streets were laid out along an
        approximate “grid” pattern, intersecting at right angles
      - streets with drains were laid
        out first and then houses built along them.
      - If domestic waste water had to flow into the street drains, every house needed to have at least one wall along a street.
    - - The Lower Town at Mohenjodaro provides examples of residential buildings.
        
        centred on a courtyard, with rooms on all sides.
        
        courtyard was probably the centre of activities such as cooking and weaving, particularly during hot and dry weather.
        
        concern for privacy: there are no windows in the
        walls along the ground level.
        
        the main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard.
        
        Every house had its own bathroom paved with
        bricks, with drains connected through the wall to the street drains
        
        staircases to reach a second storey or the roof
        
        houses had wells, often in a room that could be
        reached from the outside and perhaps used by passers-by
        
        estimated that the total number of wells in Mohenjodaro was about 700.
    - - used for special public purposes.
      - These include the warehouse – a massive structure of which the lower brick portions remain, while the upper portions, probably of wood, decayed long ago – and the Great Bath.
      - The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.
        
        it was meant for some kind of a special
        ritual bath.
    - - Citadel
      - Lower Town
  - - - Some graves contain pottery and ornaments,
        perhaps indicating a belief that these could be used in the afterlife
      - Jewellery has been found in burials
        of both men and women.
      - Ornament consisting of three shell rings, a jasper (a kind of semi-precious stone) bead and hundreds of micro beads was found near the skull of a male.
      - Harappans did not believe in burying precious things
        with the dead.
    - - Another strategy to identify social differences is to
        study artefacts, which archaeologists broadly classify as utilitarian and luxuries.
      - The first category includes objects of daily use made fairly easily out of ordinary materials such as stone or clay. These include querns, pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers
      - Second category - little pots of faience (a material made of ground sand or silica mixed with color and a gum and then fired) were probably considered precious because they were difficult to make.
      - Hoards are objects kept carefully by people, often inside containers such as pots. Such
        hoards can be of jewellery or metal objects saved for reuse by metalworkers. If for some reason the original owners do not retrieve them, they remain where they are left till some
        archaeologist finds them.
  - - - craft production was also undertaken in large cities such
    - - a tiny settlement (less than 7 hectares) as compared to Mohenjodaro (125 hectares), almost exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making.
    - - stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red
        colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite
      - metals
        like copper, bronze and gold
      - and shell, faience and
        terracotta or burnt clay
  - - - they established settlements such as Nageshwar and Balakot in areas where shell was available
      - Other such sites were Shortughai, in far-off Afghanistan,near the best source of lapis lazuli, a blue stone that was apparently very highly valued
      - Lothal which was near sources of carnelian, steatite and metal
      - expeditions to areas such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and southIndia (for gold)
      - Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture with its distinctive non-Harappan pottery and
        an unusual wealth of copper objects. inhabitants of this region supplied copper
        to the Harappans.
    - - copper was also probably brought from Oman
      - A distinctive type of vessel, a large Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of black clay
      - Mesopotamian texts
        
        Mesopotamian texts mention contact with regions named Dilmun (probably the island of Bahrain), Magan and Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region.
        
        It mentions products from Meluhha: carnelian,
        lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties of wood.
        
        Mesopotamian texts refer to copper coming from
        Magan, perhaps a name for Oman.
        
        mentions haja-bird means peacock
        
        communication with Oman,
        Bahrain or Mesopotamia was by sea
        
        refer to Meluhha as a land of seafarers
        
        depictions of ships and boats on seals.
        
        Cylinder seal, typical of Mesopotamia, but the humped bull motif derived from the Indus region.
        
        The round “Persian Gulf” seal found
        in Bahrain sometimes carries Harappan motifs
        
        local “Dilmun” weights followed
        the Harappan standard.
  - - - used for long distance communication
      - sealing also conveyed the identity
        of the sender.
      - wet clay on which one or more seals were pressed,
    - - the motif (generally an animal) conveyed a meaning to those who could not read.
      - mostly short but the longest inscriptions containing about 26 signs
      - not alphabetical and it has just too many signs – somewhere between 375 and 400
      - written from right to left
      - objects on which writinghas been found: seals, copper tools, rims of jars, copper and terracotta tablets, jewellery, bone rods, even an ancient signboard!
    - - usually made of a stone called chert
      - generally cubical
      - lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4,
        8, 16, 32, etc. up to 12,800)
      - higher denominations followed the decimal system
  - - - A stone statue was labelled and
        continues to be known as the “priest-king”
      - As of now, the last theory seems the most
        plausible, as it is unlikely that entire communities could have collectively made and implemented such complex decisions.
      - There was a single state, given the
        similarity in artefacts, the evidence for planned settlements, the standardised ratio of brick size, and the establishment of settlements near sources of raw material
  - - - climatic change, deforestation, excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up of rivers, to overuse of the landscape
      - do not explain the collapse of the entire civilisation.
    - - evidenced by
        
        the disappearance of seals, the script,
        distinctive beads and pottery,
        
        the shift from a
        standardised weight system to the use of local weights
        
        the decline and abandonment of cities.
  - - - Cunningham, the first Director-General of the
        ASI
      - archaeologists preferred to use
        the written word (texts and inscriptions) as a guide to investigations
      - He used the accounts left by Chinese
        Buddhist pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent
      - Harappan artefacts were found fairly often he did not realise how old these were.
    - - seals were discovered at Harappa by
        archaeologists such as Daya Ram Sahni
      - Another archaeologist, Rakhal Das Banerji found
        similar seals at Mohenjodaro
      - in 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new civilisation in the Indus valley to the world
      - John Marshall’s stint as Director-General
        of the ASI marked a major change in Indian archaeology
        
        first professional
        archaeologist to work in India
  - - - contain animal motifs and signs
        from a script that remains undeciphered
        
        A terracotta bull
      - Made of a stone called steatite
- - - - Inscriptions are writings engraved on hard surfaces such as stone, metal or pottery.
        They usually record the achievements, activities or ideas of those who commissioned them and
        include the exploits of kings, or donations made by women and men to religious institutions.
        Inscriptions are virtually permanent records, some of which carry dates.
        Others are dated on the basis of palaeography or styles of writing, with a fair amount of precision.
        The earliest inscriptions were in Prakrit, a name for languages used by ordinary people. Names of rulers such as Ajatasattu and Asoka, known from Prakrit texts and inscriptions,
  - - - Early Buddhist and Jaina texts mention, amongst other things, sixteen states known as mahajanapadas.
        Although the lists vary, some names such as Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and Avanti occur frequently. Clearly, these were amongst the most important mahajanapadas.
        While most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings, some, known as ganas or sanghas, were oligarchies
        (p. 30), where power was shared by a number of men, often collectively called rajas.
        Both Mahavira and the Buddha (Chapter 4) belonged to such ganas.
        Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often fortified.
        Janapada means the land where a jana (a people, clan or tribe) sets its foot or settles. It
        is a word used in both Prakrit and Sanskrit.
        Brahmanas began composing Sanskrit texts known as the Dharmasutras.
        These laid down norms for rulers (as well as for other social categories), who were ideally expected to be Kshatriyas
        raids on neighbouring states were recognised as a legitimate means of acquiring wealth
        Oligarchy refers to a form of government where power is exercised by a group of men. The Roman Republic, was an oligarchy in spite of its name.
    - - Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE, Magadha (in present-day Bihar) became the most powerful mahajanapada.
        Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
        Besides, iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand) were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons.
        Elephants, an important component of the
        army, were found in forests in the region.
        the Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap
        and convenient communication
        
        ruthlessly ambitious kings of whom Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda are the best known
        Initially, Rajagaha (the Prakrit name for presentday
        Rajgir in Bihar) was the capital of Magadha. Name means “house of the
        king”.
        In the fourth century BCE, the capital was shifted to Pataliputra, present-day Patna, commanding routes of communication along the Ganga.
  - - - the account of Megasthenes (a Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya),
        Arthashastra, parts of which were probably composed by Kautilya or Chanakya, the minister of Chandragupta.
        The Mauryas are mentioned in later Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic literature, as well as in Sanskrit literary works.
        The inscriptions of Asoka (c. 272/268-231 BCE) on rocks and pillars are often regarded as amongst the most valuable sources.
        Asoka was the first ruler who inscribed his messages to his subjects and officials on stone
        surfaces – natural rocks as well as polished pillars.
        He used the inscriptions to proclaim what he understood to be dhamma. This included respect
        towards elders, generosity towards Brahmanas and those who renounced worldly life, treating slaves and servants kindly, and respect for religions and traditions other than one’s own.
    - - There were five major political centres in the empire – the capital Pataliputra and the provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri, all mentioned in Asokan inscriptions.
        These centres were carefully chosen, both Taxila and Ujjayini being situated on important long-distance trade routes, while Suvarnagiri (literally, the golden mountain) was possibly important for tapping the gold mines of Karnataka.
        Megasthenes mentions a committee with six subcommittees for coordinating military activity. Of these, one looked after the navy, the second managed transport and provisions, the third was responsible
        for foot-soldiers, the fourth for horses, the fifth for chariots and the sixth for elephants.
        The activities of the second subcommittee were rather varied:
        arranging for bullock carts to carry equipment, procuring food for soldiers and fodder for animals, and recruiting servants and artisans to look after the soldiers.
        propagating dhamma, the principles Special officers, known as the dhamma mahamatta, were appointed to spread the message of dhamma.
    - - Asokan inscriptions very different from that of most other rulers, suggesting that Asoka was more powerful and industrious, as also more humble than later rulers who adopted grandiose titles. So it is not surprising that nationalist leaders in the twentieth century regarded him as an inspiring figure.
        The Arthashastra lays down minute details of administrative and military organisation.
        According to Greek sources, the Mauryan ruler had a standing army of 600,000 foot-soldiers, 30,000 cavalry and 9,000 elephants.
    - - Most Asokan inscriptions were in the Prakrit language while
        those in the northwest of the subcontinet were in Aramaic
        and Greek.
        Most Prakrit inscriptions were written in the Brahmi script. Some, in the northwest, were written in Kharosthi.
        The Aramaic and Greek scripts were used for inscriptions in Afghanistan.
  - - - The new kingdoms that emerged in the Deccan and further south, including the chiefdoms of the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in Tamilakam.
        Many chiefs and kings, including the
        Satavahanas who ruled over parts of western and
        central India (c. second century BCE-second century
        CE) and the Shakas, a people of Central Asian origin
        who established kingdoms in the north-western and
        western parts of the subcontinent, derived revenues
        from long-distance trade.
    - - One means of claiming high status was to identify with a variety of deities. This strategy is best
        exemplified by the Kushanas (c. first century BCEfirst century CE), who ruled over a vast kingdom
        extending from Central Asia to northwest India.
        Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been found installed in a shrine at Mat near Mathura
        (Uttar Pradesh). Similar statues have been found in a shrine in Afghanistan as well. Some historians
        feel this indicates that the Kushanas considered themselves godlike. Many Kushana rulers also
        adopted the title devaputra, or “son of god”, possibly inspired by Chinese rulers who called themselves
        sons of heaven.
        By the fourth century there is evidence of larger states, including the Gupta Empire. Many of these
        depended on samantas, men who maintained themselves through local resources including control
        over land. They offered homage and provided military support to rulers
        Prashastis are special kind of inscriptions and is a Sanskrit word which means “in praise for”
        Histories of the Gupta rulers have been reconstructed from literature, coins and inscriptions,
        including prashastis, composed in praise of kings in particular, and patrons in general, by poets.
        A Kushana coin
        Obverse: King Kanishka
        Reverse: A deity
        The Prayaga Prashasti (also known as the Allahabad Pillar Inscription) composed in Sanskrit by Harishena, the
        court poet of Samudragupta, arguably the most powerful of the Gupta rulers (c. fourth century CE)
    - - A chief is a powerful man whose position may or may
        not be hereditary. He derives support from his kinfolk.
        
        His functions may include performing special rituals,
        leadership in warfare, and arbitrating disputes. He
        receives gifts from his subordinates (unlike kings who
        usually collect taxes) and often distributes these amongst
        his supporters. Generally, there are no regular armies
        and officials in chiefdoms.
  - - - stories contained in anthologies such as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra.
        The Jatakas were written in Pali around the middle of the first millennium CE.
        One story known as the Gandatindu Jataka describes the plight of the subjects of a wicked king
    - - One such strategy was the shift to plough agriculture, which spread in fertile alluvial river valleys such as those of the Ganga and the Kaveri from c. sixth century BCE. The iron-tipped ploughshare was used to turn the alluvial soil in
        areas which had high rainfall. Moreover, in some parts of the Ganga valley, production of paddy was dramatically increased by the introduction of transplantation
        Transplantation is used for paddy cultivation in areas where water is plentiful. Here, seeds are first broadcast; when the saplings have grown they
        are transplanted in waterlogged fields. This ensures a higher ratio of survival of saplings and higher yields.
        those living in hilly tracts in the northeastern and central parts of the subcontinent
        practised hoe agriculture, which was much better suited to the terrain.
        A hoe is an ancient and versatile agricultural and horticultural hand tool used to shape soil, remove weeds, clear soil, and harvest root crops.
        Another strategy adopted to increase agricultural production was the use of
        irrigation, through wells and tanks, and less commonly, canals.
      - The importance of boundaries
        The Manusmrti is one of the best-known legal texts of early India, written in Sanskrit and compiled between c. second century BCE and c. second century CE.
        It advises kings to have boundaries.
    - - The term gahapati was
        often used in Pali texts to designate the second and
        third categories. The large landholders, as well as
        the village headman (whose position was often
        hereditary), emerged as powerful figures, and often
        exercised control over other cultivators. Early Tamil
        literature (the Sangam texts) also mentions different
        categories of people living in the villages – large
        landowners or vellalar, ploughmen or uzhavar and
        slaves or adimai
        Gahapati:
        A gahapati was the owner, master or head of a
        household, who exercised control over the women,
        children, slaves and workers who shared a common
        residence. He was also the owner of the resources –
        land, animals and other things – that belonged to the
        household. Sometimes the term was used as a marker
        of status for men belonging to the urban elite, including
        wealthy merchants.
      - Life in a small village
        The Harshacharita is a biography of Harshavardhana, the ruler of
        Kanauj composed in Sanskrit by his court poet,
        Banabhatta (c. seventh century CE).
    - - Grants of land were recorded in inscriptions. Some of these inscriptions
        were on stone, but most were on copper plates which were probably given as a record of the transaction to those who received the land. The records that have survived are generally about grants to religious institutions or to Brahmanas. Most inscriptions were in Sanskrit.
        Prabhavati Gupta was the daughter of one of the most important rulers in early Indian history, Chandragupta II (c. 375-415 CE). She was married into another important ruling family, that of the Vakatakas, who were powerful in the Deccan. According to Sanskrit legal texts, women were not supposed to have independent access to resources such as land. However, the inscription indicates that Prabhavati had access to land, which she then granted. This may have been because she was a queen.
        gramakutumbinas (householders/peasants living in the village)
        
        An agrahara was land granted to a Brahmana, who was usually exempted from paying land revenue and other dues to
        the king, and was often given the right to collect these dues from the local people.
        there were people who were often beyond the reach of officials or samantas: pastoralists, fisherfolk and hunter-gatherers, mobile or semisedentary artisans and shifting cultivators. Generally, such groups did not keep detailed records of their lives and transactions.
    - - The Sudarshana lake was an artificial reservoir. We know about it from a rock inscription
        (c. second century CE) in Sanskrit, composed to record the achievements of the Shaka
        ruler Rudradaman.
        The inscription mentions that the lake, with embankments and water channels, was built by a local governor during the rule of the Mauryas. However, a terrible storm broke
        the embankments and water gushed out of the lake. Rudradaman, who was then
        ruling in the area, claimed to have got the lake repaired using his own resources, without
        imposing any tax on his subjects.
        Another inscription on the same rock (c. fifth century) mentions how one of the rulers
        of the Gupta dynasty got the lake repaired once again.
  - - - many of these were capitals of mahajanapadas. Virtually all
        major towns were located along routes of
        communication. Some such as Pataliputra were on
        riverine routes. Others, such as Ujjayini, were along
        land routes, and yet others, such as Puhar, were
        near the coast, from where sea routes began. Many
        cities like Mathura were bustling centres of
        commercial, cultural and political activity.
      - The history of
        Pataliputra
        
        began as a village known as Pataligrama. Then, in the fifth century BCE, the Magadhan rulers decided to shift their capital from Rajagaha to this settlement and renamed it. By the fourth century BCE, it was the capital of the Mauryan
        Empire and one of the largest cities in Asia. Subsequently, its importance apparently
        declined. When the Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang visited the city in the seventh century CE,
        he found it in ruins, and with a very small population.
    - - goldsmith (sovanika)
        guilds or shrenis, organisations of
        craft producers and merchants, are mentioned
        Votive inscriptions record gifts
        made to religious institutions.
    - - From the sixth century BCE, land and river routes criss-crossed the subcontinent and extended in various directions
        Successful merchants, designated as masattuvan in Tamil and setthis and satthavahas in Prakrit, could become enormously rich.
        especially pepper, were in high demand in
        the Roman Empire, as were textiles and medicinal
        plants, and these were all transported across the
        Arabian Sea to the Mediterranean.
      - The Malabar coast
        (present-day Kerala)
        
        malabathrum (possibly cinnamon, produced in these regions)
        topaz antimony (a mineral used as
        a colouring substance),
        “Periplus” is a Greek word meaning sailing around and “Erythraean” was the Greek name for the Red Sea.
    - - Punch-marked coins made of silver and copper (c. sixth century BCE onwards) were amongst the earliest to be minted and used.
        Numismatics is the study or collection of currency, including coins, tokens, paper money, and related objects
        Numismatics is the study of coins, including visual elements
        such as scripts and images, metallurgical analysis and the
        contexts in which they have been found.
        A numismatist is a specialist in numismatics
        The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks, who established control over the north-western part of
        the subcontinent c. second century BCE.
        The Kushanas, however, issued the largest hoards of gold coins first gold coins c. first century CE. example - A Yaudheya coin
        Coins were also issued by tribal republics such as that of the Yaudheyas of Punjab and Haryana (c. first century CE).
  - - - Most scripts used to write modern Indian languages
        are derived from Brahmi, the script used in most
        Asokan inscriptions.
        James Prinsep was able to decipher Asokan Brahmi in 1838.
    - - The story of the decipherment of Kharosthi, the script
        used in inscriptions in the northwest, is different.
        Here, finds of coins of Indo-Greek kings who ruled
        over the area (c. second-first centuries BCE)
        These coins contain the names of kings written in Greek and Kharosthi scripts.
        For instance, the symbol for “a” could be found in both scripts for writing names such as Apollodotus. With Prinsep identifying the language of the Kharosthi inscriptions as Prakrit,
        it became possible to read longer inscriptions as well.
    - - Note that the name of the ruler, Asoka, is not mentioned in the inscription
        What is used instead are titles adopted by the ruler – devanampiya, often translated as “beloved of the
        gods” and piyadassi, or “pleasant to behold”.
      - The orders of the king
        
        Thus speaks king Devanampiya
        Piyadassi:
        In the past, there were no
        arrangements for disposing
        affairs, nor for receiving
        regular reports. But I
        have made the following
        (arrangement). Pativedakas
        should report to me about the
        affairs of the people at all
        times, anywhere, whether I
        am eating, in the inner
        apartment, in the bedroom,
        in the cow pen, being carried
        (possibly in a palanquin), or
        in the garden. And I will
        dispose of the affairs of the
        people everywhere.
        
        pativedaka means reporter
- - - - Terms for family
        and kin
        
        Sanskrit texts use the term kula
        to designate families and jnati
        for the larger network of kinfolk.
        The term vamsha is used for
        lineage.
      - Families are usually parts of larger networks of people
        defined as relatives, or to use a more technical term,
        kinfolk.
    - - Patriliny means tracing descent
        from father to son, grandson
        and so on.
        Matriliny is the term used when
        descent is traced through the
        mother.
      - At one level, the Mahabharata is a story
        about this. It describes a feud over land and power
        between two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and
        the Pandavas, who belonged to a single ruling family,
        that of the Kurus, a lineage dominating one of the
        janapadas.
        Ultimately, the conflict ended in a battle, in which the Pandavas
        emerged victorious. After that, patrilineal succession
        was proclaimed. While patriliny had existed prior to
        the composition of the epic, the central story of the
        Mahabharata reinforced the idea that it was valuable.
        Under patriliny, sons could claim the resources
        (including the throne in the case of kings) of their
        fathers when the latter died.
        in very exceptional circumstances, women such as
        Prabhavati Gupta exercised power.
        The concern with patriliny was not unique to ruling
        families. It is evident in mantras in ritual texts such
        as the Rigveda.
      - Why kinfolk quarrelled
        
        Adi Parvan (literally, the first
        section) of the Sanskrit Mahabharata, describing why
        conflicts arose amongst the Kauravas and Pandavas
        
        law (dharma) and profit (artha)
    - - Types of marriages
        
        Endogamy refers to marriage
        within a unit – this could be a
        kin group, caste, or a group
        living in the same locality.
        Exogamy refers to marriage
        outside the unit.
        Polygyny is the practice of
        a man having several wives.
        Polyandry is the practice of
        a woman having several
        husbands.
      - While sons were important for the continuity of the
        patrilineage, daughters were viewed rather
        differently within this framework. They had no claims
        to the resources of the household. At the same time,
        marrying them into families outside the kin was
        considered desirable. This system, called exogamy
        (literally, marrying outside), meant that the lives of
        young girls and women belonging to families that
        claimed high status were often carefully regulated
        to ensure that they were married at the “right” time
        and to the “right” person. This gave rise to the belief
        that kanyadana or the gift of a daughter in marriage
        was an important religious duty of the father.
        the Brahmanas wrote the codes of social
        behaviour in great detail. These were meant to be
        followed by Brahmanas in particular and the rest of
        society in general. From c. 500 BCE, these norms were
        compiled in Sanskrit texts known as the
        Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras. The most
        important of such works, the Manusmriti, was
        compiled between c. 200 BCE and 200 CE.
      - Eight forms of marriage
        
        Here are the first, fourth, fifth
        and sixth forms of marriage
        from the Manusmriti:
        First: The gift of a daughter,
        after dressing her in costly
        clothes and honouring her
        with presents of jewels, to
        a man learned in the
        Veda whom the father
        himself invites.
        Fourth: The gift of a
        daughter by the father after
        he has addressed the couple
        with the text, “May both of
        you perform your duties
        together”, and has shown
        honour to the bridegroom.
        Fifth: When the bridegroom
        receives a maiden, after having
        given as much wealth as he
        can afford to the kinsmen and
        to the bride herself, according
        to his own will.
        Sixth: The voluntary union
        of a maiden and her lover
        … which springs from
        desire …
    - - One Brahmanical practice, evident from c. 1000 BCE
        onwards, was to classify people (especially
        Brahmanas) in terms of gotras. Each gotra was named
        after a Vedic seer, and all those who belonged to the
        same gotra were regarded as his descendants. Two
        rules about gotra were particularly important:
        women were expected to give up their father’s gotra
        and adopt that of their husband on marriage and
        members of the same gotra could not marry.
        Satavahanas who ruled over
        parts of western India and the Deccan (c. second
        century BCE-second century CE). Several of their
        inscriptions have been recovered, which allow
        historians to trace family ties, including marriages.
      - Names of Satavahana kings
        from inscriptions
        
        These are the names of several generations of
        Satavahana rulers, recovered from inscriptions. Note
        the uniform title raja. Also note the following word,
        which ends with the term puta, a Prakrit word meaning
        “son”. The term Gotami-puta means “son of Gotami”.
        Names like Gotami and Vasithi are feminine forms of
        Gotama and Vasistha, Vedic seers after whom gotras
        were named.
        raja Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani
        raja Vasithi-puta (sami-) Siri-Pulumayi
        raja Gotami-puta sami-Siri-Yana-Satakani
        raja Madhari-puta svami-Sakasena
        raja Vasathi-puta Chatarapana-Satakani
        raja Hariti-puta Vinhukada
        Chutukulanamda-Satakamni
        raja Gotami-puta Siri-Vijaya- Satakani
      - Metronymics in the
        Upanishads
        
        The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad,
        one of the earliest Upanishads
        (see also Chapter 4), contains a
        list of successive generations of
        teachers and students, many of
        whom were designated by
        metronymics.
    - - Satavahana rulers were identified
        through metronymics (names derived from that of
        the mother). Although this may suggest that mothers
        were important,
        In the case of the
        Satavahanas we know that succession to the throne
        was generally patrilineal.
      - Fig. 3.4
        A battle scene
        This is amongst the earliest sculptural depictions of a
        scene from the Mahabharata, a terracotta sculpture from
        the walls of a temple in Ahichchhatra (Uttar Pradesh),
        c. fifth century CE.
  - - - The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras also
        contained rules about the ideal “occupations” of the
        four categories or varnas. Brahmanas were supposed
        to study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices and
        get sacrifices performed, and give and receive gifts.
        Kshatriyas were to engage in warfare, protect people
        and administer justice, study the Vedas, get
        sacrifices performed, and make gifts. The last three
        “occupations” were also assigned to the Vaishyas,
        who were in addition expected to engage in
        agriculture, pastoralism and trade. Shudras were
        assigned only one occupation – that of serving the
        three “higher” varnas.
        The Brahmanas evolved two or three strategies
        for enforcing these norms. One, as we have just seen,
        was to assert that the varna order was of divine
        origin. Second, they advised kings to ensure that
        these norms were followed within their kingdoms.
        And third, they attempted to persuade people that
        their status was determined by birth. However, this
        was not always easy. So prescriptions were often
        reinforced by stories told in the Mahabharata and
        other texts.
      - A divine order?
        
        To justify their claims,
        Brahmanas often cited a verse
        from a hymn in the Rigveda
        known as the Purusha sukta,
        describing the sacrifice of
        Purusha, the primeval man. All
        the elements of the universe,
        including the four social
        categories, were supposed to
        have emanated from his body:
        The Brahmana was his
        mouth, of his arms was made
        the Kshatriya.
        His thighs became the
        Vaishya, of his feet the
        Shudra was born.
      - “Proper” social roles
        
        Here is a story from the Adi Parvan of the Mahabharata:
        Once Drona, a Brahmana who taught archery to the
        Kuru princes, was approached by Ekalavya, a forestdwelling
        nishada (a hunting community). When Drona,
        who knew the dharma, refused to have him as his pupil,
        Ekalavya returned to the forest, prepared an image of
        Drona out of clay, and treating it as his teacher, began
        to practise on his own. In due course, he acquired
        great skill in archery. One day, the Kuru princes went
        hunting and their dog, wandering in the woods, came
        upon Ekalavya. When the dog smelt the dark nishada
        wrapped in black deer skin, his body caked with dirt,
        it began to bark. Annoyed, Ekalavya shot seven arrows
        into its mouth. When the dog returned to the Pandavas,
        they were amazed at this superb display of archery.
        They tracked down Ekalavya, who introduced himself
        as a pupil of Drona.
        Drona had once told his favourite student Arjuna,
        that he would be unrivalled amongst his pupils. Arjuna
        now reminded Drona about this. Drona approached
        Ekalavya, who immediately acknowledged and
        honoured him as his teacher. When Drona demanded
        his right thumb as his fee, Ekalavya unhesitatingly cut
        it off and offered it. But thereafter, when he shot with
        his remaining fingers, he was no longer as fast as he
        had been before. Thus, Drona kept his word: no one
        was better than Arjuna.
    - - According to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings. However, several important ruling lineages probably had different origins. The social background of the Mauryas, who ruled over a large empire, has been hotly debated. While later Buddhist texts suggested they were Kshatriyas, Brahmanical texts described them as being of “low” origin. The Shungas and Kanvas, the immediate successors of the Mauryas, were Brahmanas. In fact, political power was effectively open to anyone who could muster support and resources, and rarely depended on birth
        as a Kshatriya.
        Other rulers, such as the Shakas who came from Central Asia, were regarded as mlechchhas, barbarians or outsiders by the Brahmanas. However, one of the earliest inscriptions in Sanskrit describes how Rudradaman, the best-known Shaka ruler (c. second century CE), rebuilt Sudarshana lake (Chapter 2). This suggests that powerful mlechchhas were familiar with Sanskritic traditions.
        It is also interesting that the best-known ruler of the Satavahana dynasty, Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani, claimed to be both a unique Brahmana (eka bamhana) and a destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas. He also claimed to have ensured that there was no intermarriage amongst members of the four varnas. At the same time, he entered into a marriage alliance with the kin of Rudradaman.
        The Satavahanas claimed to be Brahmanas, whereas according to the
        Brahmanas, kings ought to have been Kshatriyas. They claimed to uphold the fourfold varna order, but entered into marriage alliances with people who were supposed to be excluded from the system. And, as we have seen, they practised endogamy instead of the exogamous system recommended in the Brahmanical texts.
    - - another term used
        in texts to refer to social categories – jati. In
        Brahmanical theory, jati, like varna, was based on
        birth. However, while the number of varnas was fixed
        at four, there was no restriction on the number of
        jatis. In fact, whenever Brahmanical authorities
        encountered new groups – for instance, people living
        in forests such as the nishadas – or wanted to assign
        a name to occupational categories such as the
        goldsmith or suvarnakara, which did not easily fit
        into the fourfold varna system, they classified them
        as a jati. Jatis which shared a common occupation
        or profession were sometimes organised into shrenis
        or guilds.
        We seldom come across documents that record
        the histories of these groups. But there are
        exceptions. One interesting stone inscription (c. fifth
        century CE), found in Mandasor (Madhya Pradesh),
        records the history of a guild of silk weavers who
        originally lived in Lata (Gujarat), from where they migrated to Mandasor, then known as Dashapura.
        The inscription provides a fascinating glimpse of
        complex social processes and provides insights into
        the nature of guilds or shrenis. Although membership
        was based on a shared craft specialisation, some
        members adopted other occupations. It also indicates
        that the members shared more than a common
        profession – they collectively decided to invest their
        wealth, earned through their craft, to construct a
        splendid temple in honour of the sun god.
      - The case of the
        merchants
        
        Sanskrit texts and inscriptions
        used the term vanik to designate
        merchants. While trade was
        defined as an occupation for
        Vaishyas in the Shastras, a
        more complex situation is
        evident in plays such as the
        Mrichchhakatika written by
        Shudraka (c. fourth century CE),
        Here, the hero Charudatta was
        described as both a Brahmana
        and a sarthavaha or merchant
        And a fifth-century inscription
        describes two brothers who
        made a donation for the
        construction of a temple as
        kshatriya-vaniks.
    - - Given the diversity of the subcontinent, there were, and always have been, populations whose social practices were not influenced by Brahmanical ideas. When they figure in Sanskrit texts, they are often described as odd, uncivilised, or even animal-like. In some instances, these included forest-dwellers – for whom hunting and gathering remained an important means of subsistence. Categories such as the nishada, to which Ekalavya is supposed to have belonged, are examples of this.
        Others who were viewed with suspicion included populations such as nomadic pastoralists, who could not be easily accommodated within the framework of settled agriculturists. Sometimes those who spoke non-Sanskritic languages were labelled as mlechchhas and looked down upon. There was nonetheless also a sharing of ideas and beliefs between these people. The nature of relations is evident in some stories in the Mahabharata.
      - A tiger-like husband
        
        This is a summary of a story from the Adi Parvan of the
        Mahabharata:
        The Pandavas had fled into the forest. They were tired
        and fell asleep; only Bhima, the second Pandava,
        renowned for his prowess, was keeping watch. A
        man-eating rakshasa caught the scent of the Pandavas
        and sent his sister Hidimba to capture them. She fell in
        love with Bhima, transformed herself into a lovely
        maiden and proposed to him. He refused. Meanwhile,
        the rakshasa arrived and challenged Bhima to a
        wrestling match. Bhima accepted the challenge and
        killed him. The others woke up hearing the noise.
        Hidimba introduced herself, and declared her love for
        Bhima. She told Kunti: “I have forsaken my friends,
        my dharma and my kin; and good lady, chosen your
        tiger-like son for my man … whether you think me a
        fool, or your devoted servant, let me join you, great
        lady, with your son as my husband.”
        Ultimately, Yudhisthira agreed to the marriage on
        condition that they would spend the day together but
        that Bhima would return every night. The couple
        roamed all over the world during the day. In due course
        Hidimba gave birth to a rakshasa boy named
        Ghatotkacha. Then the mother and son left the
        Pandavas. Ghatotkacha promised to return to the
        Pandavas whenever they needed him.
        Some historians suggest that the term rakshasa is used
        to describe people whose practices differed from those
        laid down in Brahmanical texts.
    - - While the Brahmanas considered some people as being outside the system, they also developed a sharper social divide by classifying certain social categories as “untouchable”.
        Those who considered themselves pure avoided taking food from those they designated as “untouchable”. In sharp contrast to the purity
        aspect, some activities were regarded as particularly “polluting”. These included handling corpses and dead animals. Those who performed
        such tasks, designated as chandalas, were placed at the very bottom of the hierarchy. Their touch and, in some cases, even seeing them was regarded as “polluting” by those who claimed to be at the top
        of the social order.
        The Manusmriti laid down the “duties” of the chandalas. They had to live outside the village, use discarded utensils, and wear clothes of the dead and ornaments of iron. They could not walk about in villages and cities at night. They had to dispose of the bodies of those who had no
        relatives and serve as executioners.
        Much later, the Chinese Buddhist monk Fa Xian (c. fifth century CE) wrote that “untouchables” had to sound a clapper in the streets
        so that people could avoid seeing them. Another Chinese pilgrim,
        Xuan Zang (c. seventh century), observed that executioners and
        scavengers were forced to live outside the city.
      - The Bodhisatta as a chandala
        
        Did chandalas resist the attempts to push them to the
        bottom of the social order? Read this story, which is part
        of the Matanga Jataka, a Pali text, where the Bodhisatta
        (the Buddha in a previous birth) is identified as a chandala.
        
        Once, the Bodhisatta was born outside the city of
        Banaras as a chandala’s son and named Matanga. One
        day, when he had gone to the city on some work, he
        encountered Dittha Mangalika, the daughter of a
        merchant. When she saw him, she exclaimed “I have
        seen something inauspicious” and washed her eyes.
        The angry hangers-on then beat him up. In protest, he
        went and lay down at the door of her father’s house.
        On the seventh day they brought out the girl and gave
        her to him. She carried the starving Matanga back to
        the chandala settlement. Once he returned home, he
        decided to renounce the world. After attaining spiritual
        powers, he returned to Banaras and married her. A
        son named Mandavya Kumara was born to them. He
        learnt the three Vedas as he grew up and began to
        provide food to 16,000 Brahmanas every day.
        One day, Matanga, dressed in rags, with a clay alms
        bowl in his hand, arrived at his son’s doorstep and
        begged for food. Mandavya replied that he looked like
        an outcaste and was unworthy of alms; the food was
        meant for the Brahmanas. Matanga said: “Those who
        are proud of their birth and are ignorant do not deserve
        gifts. On the contrary, those who are free from vices
        are worthy of offerings.” Mandavya lost his temper and
        asked his servants to throw the man out. Matanga rose
        in the air and disappeared. When Dittha Mangalika
        learnt about the incident, she followed Matanga and
        begged his forgiveness. He asked her to take a bit of
        the leftover from his bowl and give it to Mandavya
        and the Brahmanas …
  - - - According to
        the Manusmriti, the paternal estate was to be divided
        equally amongst sons after the death of the parents,
        with a special share for the eldest. Women could not
        claim a share of these resources.
        However, women were allowed to retain the gifts
        they received on the occasion of their marriage as
        stridhana (literally, a woman’s wealth). This could
        be inherited by their children, without the husband
        having any claim on it. At the same time, the
        Manusmriti warned women against hoarding family
        property, or even their own valuables, without the
        husband’s permission.
        You have read about wealthy women such as the
        Vakataka queen Prabhavati Gupta (Chapter 2).
        However, cumulative evidence – both epigraphic and
        textual – suggests that while upper-class women
        may have had access to resources, land, cattle and
        money were generally controlled by men. In other
        words, social differences between men and women
        were sharpened because of the differences in access
        to resources.
      - How could men and women
        acquire wealth?
        
        For men, the Manusmriti declares, there are seven means
        of acquiring wealth: inheritance, finding, purchase,
        conquest, investment, work, and acceptance of gifts from
        good people.
        For women, there are six means of acquiring wealth:
        what was given in front of the fire (marriage) or the bridal
        procession, or as a token of affection, and what she got
        from her brother, mother or father. She could also acquire
        wealth through any subsequent gift and whatever her
        “affectionate” husband might give her.
    - - According to the Brahmanical texts, another
        criterion (apart from gender) for regulating access
        to wealth was varna. As we saw earlier, the only
        “occupation” prescribed for Shudras was servitude,
        while a variety of occupations were listed for men of
        the first three varnas. If these provisions were
        actually implemented, the wealthiest men would
        have been the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas. That
        this corresponded to some extent with social realities
        is evident from descriptions of priests and kings in
        other textual traditions. Kings are almost invariably
        depicted as wealthy; priests are also generally shown
        to be rich, though there are occasional depictions of
        the poor Brahmana.
      - At another level, even as the Brahmanical view of
        society was codified in the Dharmasutras and
        Dharmashastras, other traditions developed
        critiques of the varna order. Some of the best-known
        of these were developed within early Buddhism
        (c. sixth century BCE onwards; see also Chapter 4).
        The Buddhists recognised that there were differences
        in society, but did not regard these as natural or
        inflexible. They also rejected the idea of claims to
        status on the basis of birth.
      - The wealthy Shudra
        
        This story, based on a Buddhist text in Pali known as the
        Majjhima Nikaya, is part of a dialogue between a king
        named Avantiputta and a disciple of the Buddha named
        Kachchana. While it may not be literally true, it reveals
        Buddhist attitudes towards varna.
    - - Poems included in the Tamil Sangam
        anthologies often illuminate social and economic
        relationships, suggesting that while there were
        differences between rich and poor, those who
        controlled resources were also expected to share
        them.
      - The poor generous chief
        
        In this composition from the Puranaruru, one of the
        anthologies of poems of the Tamil Sangam literature
        (c. first century CE), a bard describes his patron to other
        poets thus :
  - - - The version
        of the Mahabharata we have been considering is in
        Sanskrit (although there are versions in other
        languages as well). However, the Sanskrit used in
        the Mahabharata is far simpler than that of the Vedas,
        or of the prashastis discussed in Chapter 2. As such,
        it was probably widely understood.
        Historians usually classify the contents of the
        present text under two broad heads – sections that
        contain stories, designated as the narrative, and
        sections that contain prescriptions about social
        norms, designated as didactic. This division is by no
        means watertight – the didactic sections include
        stories, and the narrative often contains a social
        message. However, generally historians agree that
        the Mahabharata was meant to be a dramatic, moving
        story, and that the didactic portions were probably
        added later.
        Didactic refers to something
        that is meant for purposes of
        instruction.
        Krishna advises Arjuna on the
        battlefield
        This painting dates to the
        eighteenth century. Perhaps the
        most important didactic section of
        the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad
        Gita, which contains the advice
        offered by Lord Krishna to Arjuna.
        This scene is frequently depicted
        in painting and sculpture.
    - - The original story was
        probably composed by charioteer-bards known as
        sutas who generally accompanied Kshatriya warriors
        to the battlefield and composed poems celebrating
        their victories and other achievements. These
        compositions circulated orally. Then, from the fifth
        century BCE, Brahmanas took over the story and
        began to commit it to writing. This was the time
        when chiefdoms such as those of the Kurus and
        Panchalas, around whom the story of the epic
        revolves, were gradually becoming kingdoms
        another phase in the composition of
        the text between c. 200 BCE and 200 CE. This was the
        period when the worship of Vishnu was growing in
        importance, and Krishna, one of the important
        figures of the epic, was coming to be identified with
        Vishnu. Subsequently, between c. 200 and 400 CE,
        large didactic sections resembling the Manusmriti
        were added. With these additions, a text which
        initially perhaps had less than 10,000 verses grew
        to comprise about 100,000 verses. This enormous
        composition is traditionally attributed to a sage
        named Vyasa.
        Lord Ganesha the scribe
        According to tradition, Vyasa
        dictated the text to the deity.
        This illustration is from a Persian
        translation of the Mahabharata,
        c. 1740-50.
    - - Hastinapura
        
        This is how the city is described
        in the Adi Parvan of the
        Mahabharata:
        The city, bursting like the
        ocean, packed with hundreds
        of mansions, displayed with
        its gateways, arches and
        turrets like massing clouds
        the splendour of Great
        Indra’s city.
      - The Mahabharata, like any major epic, contains vivid
        descriptions of battles, forests, palaces and
        settlements. In 1951-52, the archaeologist B.B. Lal
        excavated at a village named Hastinapura in Meerut
        (Uttar Pradesh).
        One of the most
        challenging episodes in the Mahabharata is
        Draupadi’s marriage with the Pandavas, an instance
        of polyandry that is central to the narrative.
- - - - The most wonderful ancient buildings in the state of Bhopal
        are at Sanchi Kanakhera, a small village under the brow
        of a hill some 20 miles north-east of Bhopal.
        the stone sculptures and
        statues of the Buddha and an ancient gateway … The ruins
        appear to be the object of great interest to European
        gentlemen. Major Alexander Cunningham
        SHAHJEHAN BEGUM, NAWAB OF BHOPAL (ruled 1868-1901),
        The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and her
        successor Sultan Jehan Begum, provided money for
        the preservation of the ancient site. No wonder then
        that John Marshall dedicated his important volumes
        on Sanchi to Sultan Jehan. She funded the museum
        that was built there as well as the guesthouse where
        he lived and wrote the volumes. She also funded
        the publication of the volumes.
  - - - There were several pre-existing traditions of thought,
        religious belief and practice, including the early Vedic
        tradition, known from the Rigveda, compiled between
        c.1500 and 1000 BCE. The Rigveda consists of hymns
        in praise of a variety of deities, especially Agni, Indra
        and Soma. Many of these hymns were chanted when
        sacrifices were performed, where people prayed for
        cattle, sons, good health, long life, etc.
        At first, sacrifices were performed collectively.
        Later (c. 1000 BCE-500 BCE onwards) some were
        performed by the heads of households for the wellbeing
        of the domestic unit. More elaborate sacrifices,
        such as the rajasuya and ashvamedha, were
        performed by chiefs and kings who depended on
        Brahmana priests to conduct the ritual.
    - - Many ideas found in the Upanishads (c. sixth century
        BCE onwards) show that people were curious about
        the meaning of life, the possibility of life after death, and rebirth.
    - - Buddhist texts, which mention as many as 64
        sects or schools of thought. Teachers travelled from
        place to place, trying to convince one another as
        well as laypersons, about the validity of their
        philosophy or the way they understood the world.
        Debates took place in the kutagarashala – literally,
        a hut with a pointed roof – or in groves where
        travelling mendicants halted.
        Many of these teachers, including Mahavira and
        the Buddha, questioned the authority of the Vedas.
        They also emphasised individual agency – suggesting
        that men and women could strive to attain liberation
        from the trials and tribulations of worldly existence.
        This was in marked contrast to the Brahmanical
        position, wherein, as we have seen, an individual’s
        existence was thought to be determined by his or
        her birth in a specific caste or gender.
      - Chhandogya Upanishad, a text composed
        in Sanskrit c. sixth century BCE:
      - How Buddhist texts were
        prepared and preserved
        
        The Buddha (and other teachers) taught orally – through discussion and
        debate.
        None of the Buddha’s speeches were written
        down during his lifetime. After his death (c. fifth-fourth century BCE) his
        teachings were compiled by his disciples at a council of “elders” or senior
        monks at Vesali (Pali for Vaishali in present-day Bihar). These compilations
        were known as Tipitaka – literally, three baskets to hold different types of
        texts.
        The Vinaya Pitaka included rules and regulations for those who joined the
        sangha or monastic order; the Buddha’s teachings were included in the Sutta
        Pitaka; and the Abhidhamma Pitaka dealt with philosophical matters. Each
        pitaka comprised a number of individual texts.
        As Buddhism travelled to new regions such as Sri Lanka, other texts such
        as the Dipavamsa (literally, the chronicle of the island) and Mahavamsa (the
        great chronicle) were written, containing regional histories of Buddhism.
        Many of these works contained biographies of the Buddha. Some of the
        oldest texts are in Pali, while later compositions are in Sanskrit.
        When Buddhism spread to East Asia, pilgrims such as Fa Xian and Xuan
        Zang travelled all the way from China to India in search of texts. These they
        took back to their own country, where they were translated by scholars.
        Indian Buddhist teachers also travelled to faraway places, carrying texts to
        disseminate the teachings of the Buddha.
        Buddhist texts were preserved in manuscripts for several centuries in
        monasteries in different parts of Asia. Modern translations have been prepared
        from Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan texts.
      - Fatalists and materialists?
        
        Here is an excerpt from the Sutta Pitaka, describing a
        conversation between king Ajatasattu, the ruler of
        Magadha, and the Buddha:
        On one occasion King Ajatasattu visited the Buddha
        and described what another teacher, named Makkhali
        Gosala, had told him:
        “Though the wise should hope, by this virtue … by
        this penance I will gain karma … and the fool should
        by the same means hope to gradually rid himself of his
        karma, neither of them can do it. Pleasure and pain,
        measured out as it were, cannot be altered in the
        course of samsara (transmigration). It can neither be
        lessened or increased … just as a ball of string will when
        thrown unwind to its full length, so fool and wise alike
        will take their course and make an end of sorrow.”
        And this is what a philosopher named Ajita
        Kesakambalin taught:
        “There is no such thing, O king, as alms or sacrifice,
        or offerings … there is no such thing as this world or
        the next …
        A human being is made up of the four elements.
        When he dies the earthy in him returns to the earth,
        the fluid to water, the heat to fire, the windy to air,
        and his senses pass into space …
        The talk of gifts is a doctrine of fools, an empty lie …
        fools and wise alike are cut off and perish. They do
        not survive after death.”
        The first teacher belonged to the tradition of the Ajivikas.
        They have often been described as fatalists: those who
        believe that everything is predetermined. The second
        teacher belonged to the tradition of the Lokayatas, usually
        described as materialists. Texts from these traditions have
        not survived, so we know about them only from the works
        of other traditions.
  - - - Gradually, Jainism spread to many parts of India. Like
        the Buddhists, Jaina scholars produced a wealth of
        literature in a variety of languages – Prakrit, Sanskrit
        and Tamil. For centuries, manuscripts of these texts
        were carefully preserved in libraries attached to
        temples.
        Some of the earliest stone sculptures associated
        with religious traditions were produced by devotees
        of the Jaina tirthankaras, and have been recovered
        from several sites throughout the subcontinent.
    - - Just as the Buddha’s teachings were compiled by his followers, the teachings of
        Mahavira were also recorded by his disciples. These were often in the form of stories,
        which could appeal to ordinary people. Here is one example, from a Prakrit text
        known as the Uttaradhyayana Sutta, describing how a queen named Kamalavati
        tried to persuade her husband to renounce the world:
  - - - This is an excerpt from the Sutta Pitaka, and contains the
        advice given by the Buddha to a wealthy householder
        named Sigala:
        In five ways should a master look after his servants
        and employees … by assigning them work according
        to their strength, by supplying them with food and
        wages, by tending them in sickness; by sharing
        delicacies with them and by granting leave at times …
        In five ways should the clansmen look after the needs
        of samanas (those who have renounced the world)
        and Brahmanas: by affection in act and speech and
        mind, by keeping open house to them and supplying
        their worldly needs.
        There are similar instructions to Sigala about how to
        behave with his parents, teacher and wife.
  - - - This unique Buddhist text, part of the Sutta Pitaka, is a
        collection of verses composed by bhikkhunis. It provides
        an insight into women’s social and spiritual experiences.
        Punna, a dasi or slave woman, went to the river each
        morning to fetch water for her master’s household. There
        she would daily see a Brahmana performing bathing rituals.
        One morning she spoke to him. The following are verses
        composed by Punna, recording her conversation with the
        Brahmana:
    - - There are some of the rules laid down in the Vinaya
        Pitaka:
  - - - The tradition of erecting stupas may have been
        pre-Buddhist, but they came to be associated with
        Buddhism. Since they contained relics regarded as
        sacred, the entire stupa came to be venerated as an
        emblem of both the Buddha and Buddhism.
        According to a Buddhist text known as the
        Ashokavadana, Asoka distributed portions of the
        Buddha’s relics to every important town and ordered
        the construction of stupas over them. By the second
        century BCE a number of stupas, including those at
        Bharhut, Sanchi and Sarnath (Map 1), had been
        built.
      - As the Buddha lay dying,
        Ananda asked him:
        “What are we to do Lord,
        with the remains of the
        Tathagata (another name for
        the Buddha)?”
        The Buddha replied:
        “Hinder not yourselves
        Ananda by honouring the
        remains of the Tathagata. Be
        zealous, be intent on your
        own good.”
        But when pressed further,
        the Buddha said:
        “At the four crossroads
        they should erect a thupa
        (Pali for stupa) to the
        Tathagata. And whosoever
        shall there place garlands or
        perfume … or make a
        salutation there, or become
        in its presence calm of heart,
        that shall long be to them for
        a profit and joy.”
    - - Inscriptions found on the railings and pillars of
        stupas record donations made for building and
        decorating them. Some donations were made by kings
        such as the Satavahanas; others were made by
        guilds, such as that of the ivory workers who
        financed part of one of the gateways at Sanchi.
        Hundreds of donations were made by women and
        men who mention their names, sometimes adding
        the name of the place from where they came, as
        well as their occupations and names of their
        relatives. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis also contributed
        towards building these monuments.
    - - The stupa (a Sanskrit word meaning a heap)
        originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth,
        later called anda. Gradually, it evolved into a more
        complex structure, balancing round and square
        shapes. Above the anda was the harmika, a balconylike
        structure that represented the abode of the gods.
        Arising from the harmika was a mast called the yashti,
        often surmounted by a chhatri or umbrella. Around
        the mound was a railing, separating the sacred space
        from the secular world.
  - - - You may have seen wandering storytellers
        carrying scrolls (charanachitras) of cloth
        or paper with pictures on them and
        pointing to the pictures as they tell
        the story.
        At first sight
        the sculpture seems to depict a rural
        scene, with thatched huts and trees.
        However, art historians who have
        carefully studied the sculpture at
        Sanchi identify it as a scene from
        the Vessantara Jataka. This is a
        story about a generous prince who
        gave away everything to a
        Brahmana, and went to live in
        the forest with his wife and
        children.
    - - According to hagiographies, the
        Buddha attained enlightenment while meditating
        under a tree. Many early sculptors did not show the
        Buddha in human form – instead, they showed his
        presence through symbols. The empty seat (Fig. 4.14)
        was meant to indicate the meditation of the Buddha,
        and the stupa (Fig. 4.15) was meant to represent
        the mahaparinibbana. Another frequently used
        symbol was the wheel (Fig. 4.16). This stood for the
        first sermon of the Buddha, delivered at Sarnath.
    - - Other sculptures at Sanchi were
        perhaps not directly inspired by
        Buddhist ideas. These include
        beautiful women swinging from the
        edge of the gateway, holding onto a
        tree (Fig.4.17). Initially, scholars were
        a bit intrigued about this image,
        which seemed to have little to do with
        renunciation. However, after examining other
        literary traditions, they realised that it could be a
        representation of what is described in Sanskrit as
        a shalabhanjika. According to popular belief, this
        was a woman whose touch caused trees to flower
        and bear fruit. It is likely that this was regarded
        as an auspicious symbol and integrated into the
        decoration of the stupa. The shalabhanjika motif
        suggests that many people who turned to Buddhism
        enriched it with their own pre-Buddhist and even
        non-Buddhist beliefs, practices and ideas.
        Some of the recurrent motifs in the
        sculpture at Sanchi were evidently
        derived from these traditions.
        There are other images as well. For
        instance, some of the finest depictions
        of animals are found there. These
        animals include elephants, horses,
        monkeys and cattle. While the Jatakas
        contain several animal stories that are
        depicted at Sanchi, it is likely that many
        of these animals were carved to create
        lively scenes to draw viewers. Also,
        animals were often used as symbols of
        human attributes. Elephants, for example,
        were depicted to signify strength and wisdom.
        Another motif is that of a woman surrounded by
        lotuses and elephants (Fig. 4.19), which seem to be
        sprinkling water on her as if performing an abhisheka
        or consecration. While some historians identify the
        figure as Maya, the mother of the Buddha, others
        identify her with a popular goddess, Gajalakshmi –
        literally, the goddess of good fortune – who is
        associated with elephants.
  - - - By the first century CE, there is evidence of
        changes in Buddhist ideas and practices. Early
        Buddhist teachings had given great importance
        to self-effort in achieving nibbana. Besides, the
        Buddha was regarded as a human being who
        attained enlightenment and nibbana through
        his own efforts. However, gradually the idea of
        a saviour emerged. It was believed that he
        was the one who could ensure salvation.
        Simultaneously, the concept of the Bodhisatta
        also developed. Bodhisattas were perceived as
        deeply compassionate beings who accumulated
        merit through their efforts but used this not to
        attain nibbana and thereby abandon the world,
        but to help others. The worship of images of the
        Buddha and Bodhisattas became an important
        part of this tradition.
        This new way of thinking was called Mahayana
        – literally, the “great vehicle”. Those who adopted
        these beliefs described the older tradition as
        Hinayana or the “lesser vehicle”.
      - Hinayana or Theravada?
        
        Supporters of Mahayana regarded other Buddhists
        as followers of Hinayana. However, followers of the
        older tradition described themselves as theravadins,
        that is, those who followed the path of old, respected
        teachers, the theras.
    - - The notion of a saviour was not unique to Buddhism.
        We find similar ideas being developed in different
        ways within traditions that we now consider part of
        Hinduism. These included Vaishnavism (a form of
        Hinduism within which Vishnu was worshipped as
        the principal deity) and Shaivism (a tradition within
        which Shiva was regarded as the chief god), in which
        there was growing emphasis on the worship of a
        chosen deity. In such worship the bond between the
        devotee and the god was visualised as one of love
        and devotion, or bhakti.
        In the case of Vaishnavism,
        cults developed around the
        various avatars or incarnations
        of the deity. Ten avatars were
        recognised within the tradition.
        These were forms that the deity
        was believed to have assumed in
        order to save the world whenever
        it was threatened by disorder and
        destruction because of the
        dominance of evil forces. It is
        likely that different avatars were
        popular in different parts of the
        country. Recognising each of
        these local deities as a form of
        Vishnu was one way of creating
        a more unified religious tradition.
        Some of these forms were
        represented in sculptures, as were
        other deities. Shiva, for instance,
        was symbolised by the linga,
        although he was occasionally
        represented in human form too.
        All such representations depicted
        a complex set of ideas about the
        deities and their attributes
        through symbols such as headdresses,
        ornaments and ayudhas
        – weapons or auspicious objects
        the deities hold in their hands –
        how they are seated, etc.
    - - Around the time that the stupas at sites such as
        Sanchi were acquiring their present form, the first
        temples to house images of gods and goddesses were
        also being built. The early temple was a small square
        room, called the garbhagriha, with a single doorway
        for the worshipper to enter and offer worship to the
        image. Gradually, a tall structure, known as the
        shikhara, was built over the central shrine. Temple
        walls were often decorated with sculpture. Later
        temples became far more elaborate – with assembly
        halls, huge walls and gateways, and arrangements
        for supplying water.
        This tradition evolved through various stages and
        culminated much later – in the eighth century – in
        the carving out of an entire temple, that of
        Kailashnatha (a name of Shiva).
        A copperplate inscription records the amazement
        of the chief sculptor after he completed the temple
        at Ellora: “Oh how did I make it!”
        Kailashnatha Temple, Ellora
        (Maharashtra). This entire structure
        is carved out of a single piece of
        rock.
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  - - - Nineteenth century
        
        1814 Founding of the Indian Museum, Calcutta
        1834 Publication of Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus,
        by Ram Raja; Cunningham explores the stupa at Sarnath
        1835-1842 James Fergusson surveys major archaeological sites
        1851 Establishment of the Government Museum, Madras
        1854 Alexander Cunningham publishes Bhilsa Topes, one of the
        earliest works on Sanchi
        1878 Rajendra Lala Mitra publishes Buddha Gaya: The Heritage
        of Sakya Muni
        1880 H.H. Cole appointed Curator of Ancient Monuments
        1888 Passing of the Treasure Trove Act, giving the government
        the right to acquire all objects of archaeological interest
      - Twentieth century
        
        1914 John Marshall and Alfred Foucher publish The Monuments
        of Sanchi
        1923 John Marshall publishes the Conservation Manual
        1955 Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru lays the foundation stone
        of the National Museum, New Delhi
        1989 Sanchi declared a World Heritage Site