Please enable JavaScript.
Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.
Research Methods - Coggle Diagram
Research Methods
Experiments
-
-
-
-
-
-
Laboratory experiments
PET ISSUES
:check: Choice of subject- allow researchers to test hypothesis
:check: Informed consent- usually gained as participants are asked to take part
:check: High reliability- control + manipulation of variables allow replication
:red_cross: Time + money- costly to create artificial environment
:red_cross: Protection from harm- some participants experience harm
:red_cross: Low validity- hawthorne effect
Laboratory experiments
:!: Researcher manipulates IV and measures DV
:!: Artificial environment
:!: Participants aware they are being studied
:!: Researcher has strict control over the environment
:check: High in reliability
:red_cross: Low in validity
Field experiments
Field experiment
:!: Researcher manipulates IV and measures DV
:!: Natural environment
:!: Participants unaware they are being studied
:!: Researcher has little control over the environment
:check: High in validity
:red_cross: Low in reliability
PET ISSUES
:check: Time + money- cheap as it's natural
:check: Protection from harm- less distress being placed in an unusual environment
:check: High validity- Studied in their natural environment
:red_cross: Access- can be difficult to infiltrate certain areas to carry out experiments
:red_cross: Deception- Covert research, unaware
:red_cross: Low reliability- can't control the environment
Milgram's obedience study
:!: To see if authority affected obedience
:!: 40 males aged 20-50
:!: 65% went to 650 volts
:!: Didn't let them withdraw
:!: Protection from harm
:!: Lab experiment
Observations
-
-
Participant observations
-
-
:check: Very useful for when questioning would be ineffective
:check: Researcher can ensure that no harm will take place
:check: Validity- can obtain rich qualitative data
:red_cross: Time consuming- researcher needs to be trained
:red_cross: Informed consent- If covert then no consent given
:red_cross: Representativeness- small scale so doesn't provide a small basis for making generalisations
ISSUES
GETTING IN- To get in we need to gain access
STAYING IN-Researcher needs to stay in and complete the study
GETTING OUT-This process is easier if research is overt as you can just simply walk away.
-
-
-
OBSERVATION BY GRIFFIN 1961 (BLACK LIKE ME)
Griffin deliberately darkened his skin and spent 6 weeks travelling through America to understand what it was like to be black.He used prescribed medication with sessions under the sun lamp.
:red_cross: Outdated
:red_cross: Time consuming
:red_cross: Costly to travel around America
:red_cross: Vulnerable groups-not moral for black people
HOW TO IMPROVE
-Use more than one observer to prevent bias
-Use video recording so we can allow later checks
-Make sure those in authority give permission (teachers)
Questionnaires
Used to find out about people's beliefs, attitudes and opinions
-
Close ended questions
-
-
-
Likert scales (ALWAYS,SOMETIMES)
Characteristic items (MUM,DAD,SISTER)
:green_cross: Allow collection of quantitative data which can be analysed and used for objective comparison between ppts so findings are likely to be more reliable.
:red_cross: Use of predetermined choices means that ppt may not feel that their desired choice is available so they choose an answer which is close meaning its not entirely showing their view, reducing validity.
Open ended questions
-
-
-
:check: Allow collection of detailed qualitative data which can help us understand reasons behind people's beliefs and attitudes, so findings are likely to be more valid. VALID
:red_cross: Qualitative data is unique to individuals so makes it difficult to analyse and compare between groups so may be less useful.
DEWSON ET AL
-Posted 4000 questionnaires to 14 FE institutions around the country to investigate factors that influence the decisions of working class students when considering uni. They were self completion, pre coded questionnaires.
:red_cross: low validity- limited choice of responses
:red_cross: high postage cost
:red_cross: vulnerable group (children)
:check: AND :red_cross: OF QUESTIONNAIRES
:check: Quick to carry out and easy to have a large sample
:check: Can be completed anonymously
:check: Informed consent- don't have to complete
:check: Reliable-can be repeated
:red_cross: Cost a lot of money to post
:red_cross: Vulnerable groups- can only ask about certain topics
:red_cross: Lacks validiity-close ended questions
:red_cross: Some people may just ignore questionnaires (few answers)
HOW TO IMPROVE Use same questions for all participants to ensure reliability Make sure participants understand the questions to ensure validity Make sure participants understand the questions
Interviews
Structured interviews
Has a pre set list of questions, used in a standardised way, same order and manner
RESEARCH BY YOUNG AND WILMOTT Structured interviews into the extended family in East London on 933 people.Interviewers had to be hired, interviews=formal and standardised. Questions=limited answers. About age, job, religion, birthplace.
:check: Standardised- easy to analyse
:check: representative-large sample
:red_cross: Large cost- had to hire interviewees
:red_cross: only geographically representative (London)
PET ISSUES
:check: Quick and cheap to complete
:check: Can protect from harm
:check: High response rate- face to face
:red_cross: Not as efficient as postal questionnaires
:red_cross: May be asked insensitive questions
:red_cross: Interviewee effect-lower validity
Unstructured interviews
Like a guided conversation, may vary questions depending on ppts responses, asking follow up questions as the researcher sees fit
RESEARCH BY SKELTON AND FRANCIS 2003 Primary pupil-teacher relationships. Non ppt observations. 51 year 3 primary school classes in London.Children were given letters to their parents explaining the purpose of research (with consent form). They didn't have to participate.
:check:Free to speak
:check: Support from interviewer
:check: Good response rate
:red_cross: Time consuming
:red_cross: Sensitive/trigger questions
:red_cross: Not standardised- decreasing reliability
-
Group interviews
A number of people are asked questions at the same time, responses are recorder by researcher
RESEARCH BY PAUL WILLIS 1972 "Learning to Labour", 12 working class lads from a high school in Birmingham 1972-1975. Spent 18 months with them observing and talking about future career aspirations
:check: Sample is generalisable to WC boys from Birmingham
:red_cross: 18 months to do research-long time
:red_cross: Children can't consent-vulnerable groups
:red_cross: Old study- won't get same results if replicated
PET ISSUES
:check: Saving time
:check: All ppts can give consent
:check: Researcher can combine questioning+observing group dynamic
:red_cross: An individual could dominate convo
:red_cross: It's more difficult to ensure anonymity
:red_cross: Very difficult to analyse the findings-many diff opinions
A WAY OF FINDING OUT PEOPLE'S BELIEFS, ATTITUDES AND OPINIONS
Secondary sources
Official statistics
-
Durkheim
-Protestants are more likely to commit suicide than protestants
-Men are more likely to commit over women
-Single people are more likely to commit
-Married but childless women are more likely to
POSITIVISTS FAVOUR
-Provides quantitative data
-Data is reliable
-Collected at regular intervals (census every 10 years)
-Representative of the wider population
INTERPRETIVISTS REJECT
-Do not represent social facts as they are socially constructed
-Don't provide reasons why things happen the way they do
-Doesn't offer a valid explanation of social phenomena
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
:check: Easy to access and navigate the ONS website
:check: Enables us to check up on the performance of public bodies (schools)
:check: Enables easy comparisons between social groups and countries
:red_cross: Expensive for the government to collect-ONS employs 4000 people
:red_cross: Social harm- the introduction of school league tables has led to more teaching the test
:red_cross: Lacks validity- collected by the state and manipulated to make things look better (unemployment rates)
Documents
-
-
INTERPRETIVISTS FAVOUR
- Data is authentic and not altered to suit the research purposes
- Data is qualitative and can offer insight as to why things happen the way they do
POSITIVISTS REJECT
- Data is not reliable
- Analysis depends on subjective interpretation of meanings
- Aren't representative of the wider population
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
:check: Cheap source of data as it has already been collected
:check: Protection from harm- unlikely as there is no manipulation of variables
:check: Highly valid- private documents and so it can provide the researcher with detailed qualitative data
:red_cross: Access to some documents may be restricted or unpublished things such as diaries may be difficult to access
:red_cross: Private documents used in a study could be an issue when it comes to maintaining confidentiality.
Content analysis
-
Process of content analysis
1) Researchers decide what categories they wish to examine
2) Researchers study the source
3) Researchers then count the numbers in each category
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
:check: Cheap to carry out
:check: Sources are easy to find
:check: Positivists consider them as useful, objective, quantitative and scientific data
:red_cross: Interpretivists argue that counting the number of times something appears in a document does not tell us anything about its meaning.