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iGCSE Animal Physiology - Coggle Diagram

- - - - carbohydrates
        1% of body
        
        glucose = C6H12O6
        C=carbo H12O6=hydro
        
        Main fuel for cell energy
        
        sugars
        fructose, lactose, sucrose
        
        monosaccharide (single)
        
        test for glucose = Copper Sulphate
        
        disaccharide - two sugars joined together
        eg. sucrose = glucose + fructose
        eg. lactose = glucose + galactose
        
        polymers = polysaccharides
        eg. starch, glycogen, cellulose
        
        digesting starch -> sugars
        
        test for starch = iodine
        which goes dark blue
      - lipids
        10% of body
        
        also C and H and (much less) O
        
        animal lipids = solid at room T
        
        plant lipids = liquid at room T
        
        fat = energy store
        
        fat = insulation
        
        lipids -> 1xglycerol + 3xfatty acids
        (triglycerides)
        
        many different fatty acids
        
        fatty acids with no double bonds
        = 'saturated'
        
        cholesterol = linked to heart disease
      - proteins
        18% of body
        
        in all cells
        
        needed for growth & repair
        
        made of amino acids
        ALL: C, H, O, N
        2 also: Sulphur
        
        formed in a chain of amino acids
        in order & folded into a specific shape
        
        order of amino acids
        -> decides shape
        
        20x amino acids
        so thousands of proteins
        
        eg. collagen, keratin, enzymes,
        haemoglobin
        
        humans can make 10 AAs - the others
        'essentials' need to be eaten
        
        test = 'biuret' Potassium Hydroxide
        then Copper Sulfate
        
        deficiency -> kwashiorkor
      - minerals
        
        elements other than
        C H O N S
        
        iron, calcium, phosphorus
        chlorine, magnesium
      - vitamins = chemicals we
        need in our bodies
        
        Vitamin A -> makes a light-sensitive
        chemical in the retina
        from: fish liver oils, liver,
        butter, marg, carrots
        
        deficiency ->
        night blindness
        damaged cornea
        
        Vitamin B Group ->helps with
        cell respiration
        
        deficiency ->
        beri-beri
        
        Vitamin C -> sticks together
        cell lining surfaces
        from: fresh fruit & veg
        
        deficiency ->
        scurvy
        
        Vitamin D -> helps bones absorb
        calcium & phosphate
        from: fish liver oils; also made in
        skin in sunlight
        
        deficiency ->
        rickets, poor teeth
      - dietary fibre
      - water
    - - test = burning in air ->
        heat released
  - - - Oesophagus
        
        Stomach
        Protease Pepsin ->
        Proteins to peptides
        Hydrochloric acid to kill bacteria
        
        outlet sphincter muscle
        
        Small intestine
        Duodenum
        Carbohydrases:
        Amylase starch to maltose
        Maltase maltose to glucose
        Proteases:
        Trypsin proteins to peptides
        Peptidase peptides to amino acids
        Lipase:
        Lipase lipids to glycerol & fatty acids
        
        Small intestine
        Ileum
        Adapted to absorb
        Large surface area from
        length, villi and microvilli
        
        Large intestine
        Colon
        Absorbing water
        Cellulose, indigestible bits
        Water, dead & living bacteria
        Cells
        
        1 more item...
        
        Appendix
        
        Each villus had capillaries
        Central tube lacteal
        Takes products of fat digestion
        And fat droplets
        
        2 more items...
        
        Blood vessels join
        Hepatic portal vein
        
        peristalsis waves
        of muscle contraction
        move food along
        
        2 more items...
        
        Pancreas
        Makes digestive enzymes
        Is alkaline
        
        Liver makes bile
        Turns lipids into emulsion
        Is alkaline
        
        stored in gall bladder
        
        passes down bile duct
- - - - LUNGS
        
        bronchi
        
        bronchioles
        
        alveoli
        
        capillary wall (blood)
        
        leakiness
        & BP
        
        1 more item...
        
        alveolus
        
        smoking fuses
        alveolii
        
        1 more item...
      - walls contain rings of cartilage
        keeping airways open
        
        C-shaped to allow
        food to pass
      - secrete mucus
      - cells with cilia to sweep
        mucus and dirt away
        
        destroyed by smoking
        
        bronchitis
  - - - pleural fluid
        as lubrication to stop
        lungs sticking
  - - - volume change=>
        pressure change
        
        = air in or out
    - - intercostal
        muscles
        
        internal
        contract -> downwards
        OUT
        but only for deep breathing out
        
        external
        contract -> upwards
        IN
    - - muscles contract
        pulls down, flattens
        IN
      - muscles relax
        back to dome shape
        OUT
      - separate lungs from abdomen
    - - warmer
      - saturate H2O vapour
      - 5% less oxygen
      - 4% more CO2
  - - - binds with haeomoglobin
        more easily than air
        
        forms carboxyhaemoglobin
        
        less oxygen in blood
    - - can lead to a
        tumour
- - - - Blood enters R & L atria
        via Pulmonary Vein & Vena Cava
        
        Walls of atria contract
        forcing open bicuspid &
        tricuspid valves and blood
        into ventricles
        
        Ventricles contract
        forcing bicuspid &
        tricuspid valves closed
        
        Ventricles contract more
        forcing semi-lunar valves open
        and blood out of
        Pulmonary Artery & Aorta
        
        Pressure closes valves
        in Pulmonary Artery & Aorta
        
        Restart
    - - Coronary arteries
        very narrow
        
        Coronary Heart Disease
        fatty substances in coronary arteries
        
        heredity
        
        high blood pressure
        
        diet (saturated fat -> cholesterol)
        
        smoking
        
        stress
        
        lack of exercise
    - - increased by hormone
        adrenaline from adrenal gland
      - controlled by medulla
        in brain
      - CO2 receptors
        in aorta & carotid artery
      - medulla <> receptors
        via accelerator nerve
        & decelerator nerve
      - tells 'pacemaker' cells in
        heart to increase/decrease rate
  - - - THICK muscular wall
        elastic tissue
      - Arterioles
        small arteries
      - small lumen
        (central cavity)
    - - thin walls
        less elastic tissue
      - large lumen
        (central cavity)
      - semilunar valves
        to prevent blood backflow
    - - small enough to
        fit through cells
        1 cell thick
      - the width of a
        red blood cell
    - - Red Blood Cells
        erythrocytes
        
        adapted
        biconcave, disc-like cells
        no nucleus M/mm3
        
        no nucleus =>
        more space for haemoglobin
        
        biconcave=>
        more surface area for diffusion
        
        thin shape =>
        short diffusion distance
        
        transport of oxygen
        via haemoglobin
        
        haemoglobin + oxygen ->
        oxyhaemoglobin ('loaded' w oxygen in lungs)
        then 'unloads' in tissues
        
        made in
        bone marrow
      - White Blood Cells
        protect against invasion
        
        lymphocytes (25%)
        similar size to RBC
        large spherical nucleus
        
        produce antibodies
        to destroy microorganisms
        
        sometimes persist in blood
        to give immunity: memory cells
        
        first exposure ->
        'primary immune response'
        
        if same microorganism appears
        antibodies produced
        
        secondary immune response
        much faster
        
        VACCINATIONS
        
        injection of agent
        with same antigens
        as pathogen
        
        production of
        memory cells
        
        several types...
        
        weakened strain of microorganism
        eg. polio, TB, measles
        
        dead microorganisms
        eg. typhoid, whooping cough
        
        modified toxins of bacteria
        eg. tetanus, diptheria
        
        antigens themselves
        eg. flu
        
        harmless bacteria
        genetically engineered
        to carry antigen of
        different microorganism
        eg. hepatitis B
        
        antibodies - soluble proteins
        that pass into plasma
        
        recognise antigens
        chemical markers on
        pathogen surfaces
        
        stick to surface antigens
        and destroy the pathogens
        with different methods...
        
        cause bacteria to stick
        together - easier for phagocytes
        
        act as 'label' enabling phagocyte
        to recognise the pathogen
        
        cause bacterial cells to burst
        
        neutralise toxins produced
        
        phagocytes (70%)
        MUCH LARGER THAN RBC
        Spherical/lobed nucleus
        
        digest & destroy
        bacteria & microorganisms
        through phagocytosis
        or 'cell eating'
        
        extend their cytoplasm
        known as pseudopodia
        
        enclose microorganism
        in a vacuole
        
        secretes enzymes
        into vacuole
        
        EATS microorganism
        
        platelets
        smallest
        
        soluble plasma protein fibrinogen =>
        insoluble protein fibrin
        
        fragments of large cells
        made in bone marrow
        
        network across wound
        trapping red blood cells
      - Plasma
        liquid, mainly water
        carries...
        
        blood cells
        
        dissolved nutrients
        
        hormones
        
        carbon dioxide
        
        urea
        
        heat
- - - - 2. receptor organ
        nose
        
        3. coordination
        nervous system
        
        4. effector organ
        salivary glands
        
        5. response
        saliva secretion
        
        end to end =
        reflex arc
        
        stimulus-receptor-sensory neurone
        CNS-relay neurone-CNS
        motor neurone-effector-response
        
        eg. bright light, pain
        
        reflex action - rapid
        automatic response
        
        nerves: sensory and/or
        motor neurones
        
        thousands of
        individual neurones
        
        neurone = nerve cell
        
        sensory neurones
        passing to CNS
        
        1 more item...
        
        motor neurones
        passing to muscles & glands
        
        2 more items...
        
        impulses are ions
        moving in and out
        of the neurone
        
        1 more item...
        
        can be very loooooooooong
        
        CNS central nervous system
        
        BRAIN
        
        SPINAL CORD
        
        sensory impulses
        enter through
        dorsal root spinal nerve
        
        connect by synapses to
        relay neurones
        
        bypasses the brain
        although informs it
        
        connect by synapses
        to motor neurones
        
        exit spinal cord
        through ventral root
        spinal nerve
        
        middle of spinal cord
        = nerve cell bodies
        grey matter reversed in brain
        
        outer part of spinal cord
        = axons with fatty myelin sheaths
        white matter
        reversed in brain
        
        detects stimulus
        
        converts energy into
        electrical nerve impulses
        
        eye, ear, tongue, nose, skin, muscle
        can be several components
        
        EYE
        
        sclera
        white
        
        cornea
        window
        
        iris
        coloured ring
        
        pupil
        hole in iris
        
        1 more item...
        
        controls light
        entering eye
        
        2 more items...
        
        Images focused by
        refraction through
        (1) cornea (2) lens
        
        Images are upside
        down on retina
  - - - secrete a substance
      - a cell in the gland
        makes a chemical
        which leaves through
        the cell membrane
      - exocrine glands
        
        secrete through a
        tube or duct
      - endocrine glands
        
        produce hormones
        
        secreted in the blood
        (ductless glands)
        and travel through bloodstream
        
        slower than nervous control
        
        usually longer lasting than nervous
        
        can have widespread effects
        
        receptors for hormones
        are in target organs
        eg. insulin receptors in liver cells
        
        some in cell membrane
        
        some in cytoplasm
        
        some in nucleus
        
        Main endocrine glands...
        
        Pituitary gland (base of brain), hormones =
        
        FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)
        
        LH (Luteinising hormone)
        
        ADH (anti-diuretic hormone)
        
        some control by
        hypothalamus above
        so a link between nervous & endocrine
        
        regulates reproduction
        
        control of water in blood via kidney
        
        Testes
        hormone=testosterone
        
        male secondary
        sexual characteristics
        
        also a sex organ
        
        Ovaries
        hormones=oestrogen
        & progesterone
        
        regulates menstruation
        female sexual characteristics
        
        also a sex organ
        
        Thyroid (neck)
        hormone = thyroxine
        
        controls metabolic rate
        
        Pancreas
        hormones = insulin
        & glucagon
        
        INSULIN
        
        a protein which lowers blood glucose
        
        maintains at 1g per dm3 blood
        
        made by special cells in pancreas
        
        glucose comes to liver
        from digested carbohydrate
        via hepatic portal vein
        
        insulin stimulates
        liver to convert
        glucose to glycogen
        
        Diabetes
        
        urine test for glucose
        shows high levels
        
        Type 1 - pancreas cannot
        make enough insulin
        
        Type 2 - body has
        insulin resistance
        
        2 more items...
        
        constant thirst
        
        1 more item...
        
        Insulin injected into muscle
        as would be digested in gut
        
        1 more item...
        
        ALSO an exocrine gland
        secreting enzymes
        
        Adrenal glands
        'above kidney
        
        ADRENALINE
        
        Breathing rate increases
        and deepens -> more oxygen
        
        Heart beats faster -> more blood
        to muscles, more glucose & oxygen
        
        Blood diverted from intestine
        into the muscles
        
        In liver glycogen -> glucose
        and released into blood
        
        pupils dilate -> better visual sensitivity
        
        Body hair stands upright ->
        larger appearance
        
        Mental awareness increased
        -> faster reactions
        
        Raises blood glucose
        in an EMERGENCY
- - - - salts in urine or blood
        as ions: Na+ & Cl-
    - - GAIN
        
        food 800cm3
        drink 1400cm3
        
        cell respiration 400cm3
        
        TOTAL 2600cm3
      - LOSS
        
        exhaled air 400cm3
        
        sweat 600cm3
        
        urine 1500cm3
        
        1L -> 40g waste
        
        urea 23.3g
        
        ammonia 0.4g
        
        nitrogenous waste 1.6g
        
        sodium chloride 10g
        
        potassium 1.3g
        
        phosphate 2.3g
        
        the nitrogen in proteins/
        amino acids cannot be stored
        
        amino acids are broken
        down in the liver into
        glycogen + urea
        
        urea = nitrogen containing
        waste product
        
        passes into blood
        
        filtered by kidneys
        
        homeostatic organ
        contolling water & salt
        
        AND excretory organ
        concentrating nitrogen waste
        for elimination
        
        urinary system
        
        kidneys
        homeostasis water content
        & excretion
        
        cortex
        
        nephrons
        filtering tubules
        
        7 more items...
        
        tiny blood vessels
        
        controls urine
        concentration to
        maintain water content
        of the blood
        
        antidiuretic hormone
        ADH
        
        1 more item...
        
        negative feedback loop
        -> process active while
        conditions in body abnormal
        
        renal artery straight
        from aorta
        
        blood leaves
        via renal vein to vena cava
        
        faeces 100cm3
        
        TOTAL 2600cm3
  - - - endotherms
        create heat from
        inside the body
        
        heat from chemical
        reactions in cells
        to warm
        
        controls cooling
        
        sweating
        
        blood flow
        
        advantage - constant
        metabolism
        best for proteins
    - - temperature sensors
        in the skin send
        signals to hypothalamus
        
        hypothalamus
        says "cold" or "hot"
        
        human does something
        eg. find shade, put on jacket
        
        plan B - if blood
        temp change detected
        
        SKIN
        
        forms outer surface
        of the body
        
        5 more items...
        
        three layers
        
        3 more items...
        
        temperature control
        response
        
        3 more items...
        
        also shivering
        
        also speeding up
        metabolism
- - - - male gametes (sperm)
        *haploid cells*
        
        produced by meiosis
        in male sex organs
        testes
        
        head (sac of enzymes
        to penetrate membrane
        around egg) + nucleus
        
        mid-piece
        mitochondria = energy
        for movement
        
        tail flagellum
        for swimming
        specialised
        
        male gamete
        travels to female
        
        3 more items...
  - - - pituitary gland
        
        pituitary hormones
        
        girls -> ovaries secrete
        eostrogen sex hormone
        
        female secondary
        sexual characteristics
        
        menstruation
        
        menstrual cycle
        
        1 more item...
        
        breasts
        
        follicle stimulating
        hormone FSH
        
        boys -> sperm production
        
        luteinising
        hormone LH
        
        boys -> testes secrete
        testosterone
        
        male secondary sexual
        characteristics
        
        growth of penis & testes
        
        facial & body hair, muscles
        
        breaking of the voice
      - gametes start to
        mature & be released
      - bodies adapt to
        enable reproduction