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Issues & Debates, = Any characteristics of human beings that are cable…
Issues & Debates
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Free will & Determinism
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Biological, environmental & psychic determinism
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= Any characteristics of human beings that are cable of being applied to all, regardless of culture/ experiences.
- Yet gender & cultural bias can affect these findings
= When an individual in a group is considered different from others, not showing true experience of men/women
- Alpha bias = Theories saying that there are differences between men & women, undervaluing one gender from another (mainly women).
- E.g. Sociobiological theory relationships, males only want to impregnate women for survival of their gene/ women want a man who can give healthy survival of offspring for her gene survival too, yet seen as exaggeration of differences between genders
- Beta bias = Theories that ignore differences between genders. (claiming they are same)
- Female pp's that aren't included in research, as it assumes results generalise to both genders
- E.g. Kohlberg's study on moral development using American males, yet generalised results to both
= Consequence of beta bias, normal behaviour is judged on males causing female behaviour to be seen as abnormal/ could be misunderstood as disorder
- E.g. females have objected to a category premenstrual syndrome that affects female emotion by hormones (anger), yet males anger is towards external pressure
= When cultural differences are ignored, all behaviour is according to one culture
- Western cultures studies finding has been applied over the world e.g. Asch's study was on USA male pp's, but when replicated in other world parts = different results
- Causes cultural bias not universality
= When one culture is judged/ discriminated by another that believes its superior to it
- E.g. strange situation, where attachment types were determined based on American norms
- Yet, other country norms were misinterpreted as a German mother giving independence to a child was seen as rejecting, so this study = poor measure
= Idea that the norms of one culture can only be understood in certain social/ cultural contexts
- Berry found a difference between imposed etic = behaviour looked at from outside of a culture that's tried to be applied as universal & emic = looks within a culture to identify behaviour to that specific culture
- Ainsworth's SS is etic as she studied American behaviour & tried to apply attachment types universally
- Berry argues that psychology imposes etic approaches --> actually they are emic, so psychologists should acknowledge cultural relativism to avoid cultural bias
- Individualist cultures (Western) e.g. America value freedom / independence, but collectivist cultures e.g. China / India are interdependent & need a group
- Takano & Osaka found in 14/15 studies where USA & Japan were compared no evidence was found of the distinction, so cultural bias today may not be a big issue
- Berry reminds psychologists that behaviour may only be understood within the culture it was found, yet it's possible for universal behaviour too
- Ekman's research suggests that facial expressions for emotions are same for all humans / animals, compared to ainsworth's study where attachment vary in different cultures, so human behaviour is understood individually & universally
- Western culture research of pp's familiarity with aims of study may be assumed, yet in other cultures this may not be the same idea due to lack of research experience
- Creates demand characteristics with other cultures --> affecting research validity (Bond & Smith)
= The idea that an individuals bevhaviour is determined by internal / external forces, not by their own will
= The idea that humans are free to choose their own thoughts & actions, that's not determined by biological / external forces
= (fatalism) The idea that our behaviour has a cause by internal / external forces, which we have no control over --> no FW
= The idea that behaviour has causes, yet we have control over our own conscience choices too (James' idea part of cognitive approach)
- BD = Belief that behaviour is caused by biological influences that can't be controlled
- (biological approach) unconscious e.g. ANS anxiety, mental disorders by genetic basis, aggression by hormones & environment affects biological structures
- ED = Belief that behaviour is caused by the environment (rewards&punishment) that can't be controlled
- Skinner said FW isn't true, behaviour is due to operant conditioning by reinforcement --> by parents / teachers
- PD = Belief that behaviour is caused by unconsciousness that can't be controlled
- Freud said FW isn't true too, behaviour due to unconscious conflicts repressed (distressed memory forced out of conscious mind) in childhood
- Scientific principle --> every event has a cause --> allows scientists to predict / control future events
- In psychology lab experiments --> researchers find conditions --> by removing extraneous variables--> to control & predict behaviour
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- (N) Descartes, nativist said human characteristics & knowledge are innate, due to heredity (Inheritance of genes through generations)
- Heritability coefficient 0-1.0 asses how genetic a characteristic is e.g. IQ was 0.5 showing genes & environment determine it
- (N) Lock, empiricist said our mind is blank at birth & what we learn is due to the environment
- Lerner had levels of environment (non-genetic influences on behaviour) pre-natal = Mother's state during pregnancy or post-natal = Cultural / historical contexts the child grows up in
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= Nature & nurture are linked, where they are studied on how they influence each other
- E.g. Belsky & Rovine found a child's innate behaviours influences a parents response (N), that then affects the child's behaviour (N)
- Mental illnesses are due to genetic vulnerability (diathesis) & environmental trigger (stressor)
- Tienari found in finish adoptees they are most likely to develop sz when biological relatives have a history of it & due to dysfunctional relationship with adoptive parents
= Change in genetic activity without changing genetic code, due to environment e.g. smoking/diet leaving marks on DNA
- They tell our bodies which genes to use/not use that can influence their childs genetic code too
- Previous generations is part of N-N debate too, Dias & Ressler found when giving male labs mice shocks when smelling acetophenone (due to fear), where their children/grandchildren feared smell too before shocks
- Constructivism shows people choose their own nurture, to suit their nature e.g. a natural aggressive child will be comfortable around similars, then affecting development
- Plomin said niche-picking & building is evidence too, supporting its difficult to separate N-N influences on behaviour
- Dunn & Plomin said due to individual differences --> Siblings raised in same family --> may have different upbringings e.g. age at which divorce occurs affects them differently
- In MZ twins too concordance rates may not be perfect supporting difficulty in separating N-N
- Nativists suggests our behaviour is due to inheritance, little environment, creating determinism controversy of links between race, genetics & intelligence & eugenics (idea of improving human genetic traits more reproduction for those with desired traits than without) too
- Empiricists say behaviour changes due to environment, behaviour shaping reinforces +ve behaviours & punishes -ve, where society can control using this
Holism = Based on humanistic approach, Where behaviour is best understood as a whole than breaking it down into parts
Reductionism = Belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller parts (parsimony - principle where behaviour explained to basic level)
- The same idea can be seen in different ways in psychology, as each level becomes more reductionist than other
- Sociology-Psychology-Biology-Chemistry-Physics, where disciples at top are likely to be replaced by bottom
- E.g. OCD socio-cultural = seen as producing odd behaviour, psychology = obsessive thoughts, physically = sequence of movements & biologically = lack of serotonin
= Idea that psychological principles are explained at lower biological level for behaviour e.g. by neurochemicals, physiology, evolution & genetics
- Accepted by assumption of biological approach that's been applied to psychology e.g. psychoactive drugs--> affect brain --> disorders like OCD & SZ
= Based on behaviourist approach, explaining behaviour on stimulus-response links learned by experience that's observable in labs
- So behaviour is understood at a physical level than psychological as cognitive thought processes don't understand behaviour here
= Focuses on understanding the behaviour of an individual (own experiences & values), than generalising behaviour to all.
- Uses qualitative data methods of case studies & unstructured interviews, to gain an insight of person's uniqueness & experience
= Studies human behaviour through general/universal laws, where people are compared so to control future behaviour.
- Uses experiments using large nbrs of people to see their similarities
- Humanistic approach, Rodgers & Maslow studied the consciousness & self of humans, to understand their unique experiences
- Psychodynamic approach, is idiographic as Freud used case studies when looking at patients lives, yet it's nomothetic he found universal behaviour/personality
- These approaches would be reductionist, determinist & use scientific methods (hypothesis, controlled testing & finding from many people that's quantitatively analysed) to form general laws
- E.g. Behaviourist approach studied animals for laws of learning, cognitive inferred structures/ processes to measure performance & biological did brain scans for where structures in brain are
- Uses qualitative data providing an in depth & complete account of an individual to develop research. Can complement nomothetic approach e.g. brain damaged patients HM can give important info of normal functioning too, that can generalise to all's understanding
- But, it's quite narrow & restricted making it difficult to generalise the idea further as can't compare with other behaviour e.g. Oedipus complex. The methods used aren't as scientific as it's subjective to only one & conclusions can be affected by research bias, IA lacks validity for behaviour
- Very scientific with standardised conditions with high internal validity & avoids bias. As psychologists found norms for typical behaviour, increasing its credibility
- But, idea of general laws can lose a person e.g. 1% risk of developing sz that doesn't say what its like for one suffering or in a memory lab study pp's treated as scores than their experience of study, making generalising overlook human experience
= Impact research can have on rights of people (pp's) in terms of society & public policies
- Ethical guidelines --> protect ethical issues
- Yet, after the research, findings in media --> causes social impact as it influences our views on groups in society
= Studies with consequences on pp's in research or individuals represented by research
- E.g. study on cognitive processes on LTM wont have consequences on pp's/who they are representing, yet studies on race or sexuality might from media/public
- Aronson said these topics are socially sensitive but important to study them
Sieber & Stanley found:
- Implications = Effects of this research must be carefully considered as studies may be seen as scientifically creating discrimination, yet effects are difficult to predict.
- Uses/public policy = Considers what the research will be used for & if for wrong purpose, as government may use findings to shape public policies
- Validity of research = Some findings lacked value that was susceptible, but socially sensitive researchers are up front of their biases commenting on them in publications
- Scarr found that studies that underrepresent/sensitive to topics of race or gender can become more accepted reducing bias
- Valuble in society too e.g. unreliable eyewitness testimonies has protected risks in legal system
- Stanley & Sieber found the way research questions are phrased --> influences interpretation of findings
- E.g. Ethnocentrism is caused by researchers in cross-cultural research & Alternative research bias has been comparing homo/heterosexual research against norms
- So investigators must look at research openly to avoid misinterpretation of minority