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Society/culture
Society & Culture 1894-1917
LIVING CONDITION DEVELOPMENTS - CS
Conditions for peasant farmers did not improve substantially and there was still
widespread rural poverty
despite Stolypin's reforms.
Although the
Kulak
class prospered, life became
harsher for the poorer peasants
.
Many had to leave their farms and look for
seasonal farming work
or
industrial employment
. Minority migrated to
Siberia
.
The
Mir
remained the centre of the rural life of which a large proportion lived.
Living Standards were generally poor
, however there was some variation.
Despite
healthcare provided by the Zemstvo
, the
Mortality rates remained high
and there were few doctors.
The literacy rate remained low, around a
60% literacy rate
.
Social divisions
The Nobility
Around
a third of nobles land
was transferred to the urban middle class or peasants between 1861 and 1905, with varying effects:
Negative change
- some nobles struggled to meet
debt
. Some nobles unable to adapt to
modern business
.
Little change
- Taxes were not redistributed, so their life remained largely unchanged. Nobles retained
Political influence
.
Positive changes
- some did well out of
land distribution
, consolidating the best for them self. Some prospered by turning to
industrial enterprise
.
The middle class
Due to
demand for professional workers
, an emerging middle layer in society increased in influence.
Members expressed their views through the
zemstva and the town and state duma
.
Social mobility began to occur as nobles sons chose to join the business, or peasants sons rose to
middle class manager of factory positions
.
Workers and Peasantry
Population growth
and
economic development
most affected the workers and peasantry.
In the countryside;
traditional attitudes
, pre-1914 had been traditional grievances. But by 1914
political activism
was taking effect.
In urban areas, peasants lost their former identity. They instead associated with those whom they lived and worked, sharing
grievances
and becoming targets for
political agitators
. This discontented class provided the impetus for the
overthrow in 1917
Cultural Changes
New
opportunities for women
, for education or for independence through employment.
Improvements in education
had reduced illiteracy(secondary and higher education remained
elitist
).
Books and publications increased
; many writers started addressing the issues of Russia.
Censorship was relaxed
from 1905, producing the 'silver age' of culture.
However, the
orthodox church
continued to influence both government and community. There was an outpouring of patriotism and support for the Tsar when war broke out.
1914, all classes rallied to defend the Russian Motherland
.
LIVING CONDITION DEVELOPMENTS - T
Between
1867 to 1917
, Russia's
Urban population quadrupled from 7 to 28 million
, peasants arrived to seek work in new factories.
By 1914,
3/4 of the population of St Petersburg were peasants by birth
, half the cities population arrived in the previous 20 years.
Conditions in the towns were grim
. Workers often lived in barrack-like buildings supplied by the owners,
dangerously overcrowded and unsanitary
.
Rent was high
and some workers were homeless and
wages varied
.
Between
1885 and 1912
a series of decrees attempted to improve conditions:
Reducing work hours
Enforcing the use of contracts
Banning the employment of children under 12
Provided sickness and accident insurance
Increasing educational provision
Political discontent spread easily through towns and cities.
Strike activity was rare before the events of 1905
. It escalated again in
1912 and 1914
where there were
3000 stoppages
. Government repression was violent.
Society & Culture 1855-1894
BACKGROUND CONTEXT
Russia was a starkly divided nation between the privileged
Land-owning elite
and the
serf majority
.
Non-Productive class
- Consisted of clergy, nobility, civil and military officials, army and naval officers.
Productive class
- Serfs,
Urban artisans
(E.g leather-maker), Merchants and manufacturers.
Middle class
- striking feature was the absence of a middle class, there were a small number of professionals (doctors) of whom formed an educated
'intelligentsia'
, these were often sons of nobles.
Classes
Taxes
Taxes provided
25%
of ordinary government income which grew to
30%
by
1855
Peasants were hit hard by taxation and with urban workers and tradesmen provided
90%
of imperial income. Nobility and Clergy were exempt from the payment of any
direct monetary tax
.
Social divisions
Industrialisation
-
more focused on money, capital and wages
.
Although society was still strongly divided before 1895, a
new middle and working class began to emerge
.
The middle class
Growing class
, result from
industrial expansion
and education.
Include bankers, doctors, teachers and administrators.
Enterprises included building
railways
and
starting factories
.
Lower middle class could become managers or work shop owners.
The urban working class
Around 2% of the population by the 1890s
:
Some peasants worked in towns and returned to farming at peak times
Others became urban workers or worked for
migrant groups building railways
.
Growing class
1 in 3 inhabitants in St Petersburg by 1864 were peasant born
.
Suffered poor working and living conditions.
The peasantry
The richer peasants -
Kulaks
:
Did well out of emancipation
Bought up land and employed labour
Might buy grain from poorer peasants in autumn and sell back for profit in spring
Poorer peasants:
Suffered more after emancipation
became landless labourers, often in
debt
experienced poor living standards
poor health and low life expectancy
The landed elite (former serf-owners)
Small but diverse group,
mostly of noble status
Personal land holdings decreased since
emancipation
Employed in:
Professional activities (e.g University professors)
business, commerce, transport or industry
Zemstva and/or provincial governorships
Often retained much of their previous wealth and status
INFLUENCE OF THE CHURCH
The church possessed
strict censorship controls
and the
church courts
judged moral and social crimes
1862
- an
Ecclesiastical commission
was established to look into the church's organisation and practice.
1868
- reforms were introduced to improve the education of priests.
The church was given more power over
primary education
under
Delyanov
as minister of education.
Russification
promoted
orthodoxy
throughout the empire. It became
illegal to convert from orthodoxy
.
There was evidence that the orthodox church was losing control over peoples lives. It was becoming less relevant in
industrialising towns
, and countryside superstition was becoming more powerful than priest influence.
RUSSIAFICATION
Russification under Alexander III
Alexander III and his ministers, especially
Pobedonostev
engaged in a policy of 'cultural russiafication'.
Finland
-
Parliament
was reorganised in order to weaken its political influence,
Russian language was demanded
, Russian coinage replaced local currency.
Poland
-
Polish national banks closed in 1885
, all subjects had to be taught in Russian in Universities,
administration of Poland was changed
to curb independance.
Ukraine
- Limitations on the Russian language in
1883
.
Military
-
Conscription
area widened and national areas were dispersed to avoid national groupings.
ORTHODOX CHURCH
- adherence to the faith was encouraged. In the
Baltic region
,
37,000 Lutherans converted to orthodoxy
for support measures.
1 more item...
Results of Russification
Resistance
-
June 1888
Police department estimated
332 cases
of mass disturbance, this included
43 disturbances in 9/12 central provinces
.
Resentment
- more educated and wealthy national minorities disliked the policy. Constantly petitioning the Tsar for more liberty,
secret book publication
continued.
Misguided policy?
- Intensified
national feeling of non-Russians
and drove some wealthier citizens to emigrate or opposition, which would have previously been loyal.
ETHNIC MINORITY ISSUES
Russia was a
multi-national
Empire, inhabited by over
100 different ethnic groups
.
Slavs
in Russia, Ukraine and Belorussia made up
two thirds of the population
. The remaining people were a mixture of cultures.
Catholic poles, Muslims, Jews, Romanians & Georgians were just some.
The diversity provided issues for
autocracy
particularly following a development of
national identity
where ethnic groups were provoked to assert nationality.
A II & ETHNIC MINORITIES
More concerned with control than racial superiority.
1863, the Polish rebellion broke out
. More than
200,000
Poles had joined in creating an underground national government, which waged a
guerilla warfare
against the imperial empire -
defeated in 1864
after fierce conflict.
Did not engage in the systematic persecution of racial minorities and used
concessions
to maintain authority.
E.g decrees from 1864-75 allowed Latvians and Estonians to revert to
Lutheranism
.
Growing friction towards the end of his reign saw a growing intolerance of national differences.
E.g
Prohibition of Ukrainian language publications in 1876
.
Society & Culture 1941-1964
SOCIAL CONDITION BY 1964
Living standards began to rise rapidly
and consumers began to benefit from industrialisation.
Generated a mood of optimism with a seemingly 'better society' being built in the USSR.
Still massive unsolved problems in Society
.
Impact of war on Society
DIFFERENT SECTS
The panic of invasion helped reunite society, as men rushed to military service. Stalin referred to the
'Great patriotic war'
to strengthen spirit.
Churches
Persecution was temporarily halted.
The churches were used to boost morale and encourage patriotism.
Soldiers and workers
All sections of society were recruited and centrally deployed for war work.
Working hours increased.
Discipline (in both factories and army) was tightened.
Propaganda and culture
Intense propaganda was used to promote unity.
Posters and the press encouraged heroism and self-sacrifice
Artists and musicians enjoyed more freedom, to encourage an atmosphere of national reconciliation.
Partisans
Many soviet citizens and soldiers left behind the German lines formed partisan groups, using sabotage against the enemy.
They risked terrible Nazi reprisals, as did innocent civilians caught behind German lines.
Women and family
The importance of family was emphasised.
Women's burdens increased - they were essential wartime workers but also expected to raise large families.
Women worked in industry, on farms or in the armed forces, but received little reward.
Living condtions
Food shortages led to the death of millions.
Many had to flee the German advance or relocate to factories in the east.
Housing and fuel shortages were acute.
Health problems increased.
Many died in the Gulag.
GENERAL POPULATION
The Russian people endured terrible wartime suffering.
Nearly 30 million civilians and soldiers were killed
and 25 million in the west lost their homes.
Despite this, War brought hope:
The sense of collective endeavour revived hopes for change.
Comradeship among soldiers helped spread new liberal thinking.
Greater exposure to western influence led to hope for a more open post-war society.
Such hopes were not achieved. In reality,
1945-53 was among the most bleak of the Stalinist period
.
Social change under Stalin, 1945-53
LITTLE CHANGE
Standards of living for ordinary people did not improve.
Peasants income remained low.
In towns working and living conditions remained harsh.
Workers could still be relocated.
Party officials received higher rations.
Women were expected to work as well as run the household and look after their children.
Shortages of consumer goods.
Social change under Khrushchev, 1953-64
Khrushchev was committed to improving the living standards of the Soviet People.
Through de-Stalinisation and economic reforms
:
LARGE CHANGE
Consumer goods were more readily available
.
Housing initiatives helped alleviate overcrowding.
Taxation was lowered and pensions improved.
Working hours were reduced
and there was a move towards equal wages.
Trade unions were given more responsibilities and greater influence in employment negotiations.
Educational provision, medicine and welfare services and transport were improved.
HOWEVER:
High-ranking Party officials retained privileges.
Living standards were still
significantly lower than in the western industrialised states.
The Quality of Life and Cultural change
Social life and Cultural change
After the repression and the
fear of 'Zhandovschina'*
, Khrushchev's de-Stalinisation policies brought greater personal freedom for soviet citizens:
POLICIES:
Greater openness to Western influence
Restrictions on Western contact reduced, reading of foreign literature permitted, some travel from USSR allowed.
Brought discontent to rigidity of Soviet life
especially amongst young people which led to increased hooliganism and protests.
Rehabilitation of writers and Musicians who had been persecuted under Stalin
- even if their work criticised the Stalinist regime.
HOWEVER:
Artistic works still judged on their commitment to 'social responsibility'
- any that challenged communism or Soviet State were outlawed.
The Churches
Khrushchev
revived the old Socialist campaign against the Churches
:
Children forbidden from being taught religion
- not allowed to be taught by parents or attend services, education was atheistic.
Thousands of monasteries, convents, Orthodox Churches and seminaries were closed
- many converted to museums or community centres promoting socialist values.
Church service strictly regulated
- Pilgrimages also banned.
Excess religious devotion could lead to imprisonment
- clergymen could be sent to labour camps.
Ethnic Minorities
Khrushchev did not encourage greater independence for the nationalities:
Single common language
- the party taught that ethnic distinctions would ultimately disappear and that a single common language would be adopted in the USSR.
Restrictions on Jews maintained
.
Cultural - High Stalinism
New controls over intellectual life were introduced in the
zhdanovchina
(named after Zhdanov, who launched a cultural purge in 1946). Stressed conformity to socialist ideals and cult of Stalin. Westernisms condemned as decadent; all things Russian were promoted.
Anti-soviet authors were condemned and publications banned
(particularly those supportive of Western culture.
Social-realism became the norm
in literature, art, music and film.
Only pro-soviet authors allowed to to visit USSR
and few soviets allowed to travel west.
Society & Culture 1917-1941
Class issues
The classless society
Following
Marxist theory
, the Bolshevik revolution campaigned against the 'class' enemies of the proletariat (the
burzhui
).
POLICIES FOR MARXIST FUFILLMENT:
Class titles were abolished.
'Former people' (nobles and bourgeoise) were forced into menial tasks; their homes were turned into communal worker housing (
Komunalki
).
During the civil war, rations were allocated according to class (workers and soldiers received the most).
Following some relaxation of the policy under the NEP, Stalin continued class-based attacks.
The communist goal was to create a
'socialist man'
with a sense of social responsibility and a willingness to serve the state.
The proletariat
'
Proletarianism
was an important step in creating the 'socialist man'. Despite this working life was harsh.
After the short
'workers control'
period of
1917-18
, discipline in factories was restored.
HARSHER POLICIES:
After 1918, workers could not level their jobs and could be imprisoned or shot for missing targets.
Unions
became a means of controlling workers.
'Living and working conditions remained grim throughout the
NEP
, and worsened because of
collectivisation
and the drive towards industrialisation.
OPPURTUNITIES POST 1931 (INDUSTRIALISATION):
Propaganda campaigns such as the
stahanovite movement
(named after a miner whose inflated achievements were hailed as an example to others) increased 'socialist competition'.
Education improved, the purges created vacancies at higher levels, and social mobility increased.
REALITY:
Living conditions still remained poor. Wages remained low.
Market prices were high.
From 1940, the
prospect of war
led to firmer discipline, and an end to many of the benefits of the 1930s.
Women
LENINS POLICIES
Before revolution, peasant women had been mainly expected to look after households and children. They had
no legal rights or privileges
. In
November 1917
, the new government
outlawed sex discrimination
:
Women given the right to own property.
Removed church influence, facilitated divorce and legalised abortion.
Gave women the
right to work
.
Gave girls the same
education rights
as boys.
STALINS POLICIES
In the
1930s
Stalin revived traditional ideas:
Family was portrayed as all-important and women are encouraged to give up paid employment when married.
Marriage was encouraged;
divorce and abortion were attacked
, adultery became a criminal offence and
contraception was banned
.
Financial incentives offered for bigger families
.
However, the
numbers of women in work or education grew
(in industry or collective farms), helped by an
increase in state nurseries and in child-clinics
. The divorce rate remained high, abortion continued and although the majority of people married, the population growth-rate fell.
Young People
Education
Education was seen as essential to build a socialist society.
LENIN:
Free education
was provided at all levels in
co-educational schools
.
New secondary schools combined with general education with vocational training.
Traditional learning was combined with physical work..
Textbooks and exams were largely abolished.
Some
freedom
, creativity and
individualism
were permitted.
Physical punishment was banned.
STALIN:
Education for all was abandonned
; some single-sex schools were reintroduced.
Although 'Practical work' was encouraged for the less able students, the
focus was on teaching inudstrial skills
.
Collective farms
or
town enterprises
were responsible for many schools.
Universities were controlled by the veshenka
, the economic planning agency.
A rigid curriculum was enforced.
Nationalism was promoted
and military training introduced.
Teachers were set
high targets
and closely supervised.
By
1941
there were marked educational improvements including a high rise in literacy.
Youth organisations
In
1918
a
young communist league was formed
for youngsters aged 14-21 years.
A junior section (the
pioneers
) followed in
1922
.
In
1926
the organisation was renamed the
'Komsomol'
and the age-range was extended to between 10-28 years.
CONTINUED & GREW WITH STALIN:.
It taught communist values through clubs, community centres and camps and had its
own newspaper
.
It was closely linked to the communist Party
directly affiliated in 1939
.
Members took an oath to live, study and fight for the fatherland;
they wore a uniform
helped carry out party campaigns
assisted the
red army
and police.
Religion
MARX SAW AS A MEANS TO PROTECT UPPER CLASS
1917-18 (Lenin)
Freedom of worship
.
Church lands seized.
Schools transferred to the state
.
Civil marriage and registration were established.
Church and state were seperated.
civil war
Many
Priests starved
(deprived of rations).
Muslim property confiscated
, Sharia courts abolished.
From 1921 (Stalin)
Teaching of religion in schools banned
.
Church property transferred to the state.
Church officials forced to agree to keep out of politics.
Churches ransacked.
Christian festivals replaced with
secular celebrations
.
Stalin, 1929-41
Worship restrictions.
New six-day week had no sunday.
Muslim practices restricted.
1936 constitution
criminalised religious propaganda (although priests regained the
right to vote
).
By
1641, around 65,000 churches and mosques had been converted
into other buildings.
However, religious belief remained strong.
National Minorities
Self-determination
Lenin's
nationality decree of 1917
fulfilled the Bolshevik promise of
self-determination
.
However, when this led to
separatist movements
, the Bolsheviks disagreed as to whether or not to impose integration on the nationalities.
Stalin brutally suppressed movements towards independance in
Georgia
in
1922
.
Anti-Semitism
The communists
abolished anti-semetic laws in 1917
, encouraged national languages, and granted representation within the party to major nationalities.
In
1926
, Jews were given a
'National Homeland'
in the far east provences.
Single soviet identity
In the
1930s
Stalin's aims of creating a single 'Soviet identity' involved
greater centralisation
and less tolerance.
Leaders of the republics had to follow the path set out by Moscow.
Non-Russians were deported
within the Soviet Union and anti-semetic behaviours revived.
From
1938
, learning Russian was compulsary in schools, and Russian was the
only language in the Red army
.
Stalinist state
The Stalinist state remained officially opposed to
racial discrimination
. Most campaigns were politically rather than racially motivated.
Propaganda
LENIN
used propaganda to convert people to
Socialism
. Strong visual messages were a powerful way of appealing to illiterate peasants.
STALIN
exploited his own propaganda machine to gain support for
collectivisation
and
industrialisation
. The socialist message was reinforced by images of happy, productive workers, while heroes were praised as role models.
propaganda also reinforced his own position, portraying him as a mighty, all-knowing leader, and a natural successor to
Marx, Engels and Lenin
. Stalin encouraged a cult status for Lenin after his death, and developed his own
'cult personality'
.
Cultural change
LENIN
Greater freedom immediately after the revolution allowed culture to thrive.
Freedom of expression
was encouraged and the
1920
s became the
'silver age'
of Russian literature, poetry and music.
STALIN
The
Stalinist era
reversed these developments. The visual and performing arts were seen as valuable only if they supported the creation of the
'socialist man'
. Creativity was replaced with
conformity
.
From
1932
, writers musicians, artists and film-makers had to belong to
unions
, which controlled their output. Writer and other artists were expected to depict 'social realism' - namely and uplifting vision of soviet life in the socialist future. Literature and Art were to illustrate the inevitable
'march to communism'
and glorify the working man.
SOCIETY BY 1941
Social weaknesses
Quality of Life did not improve significantly under Stalin:
Living standards remained low.
Freedom of movement was restricted.
Censorship and propaganda dominated.
Mass organisations manipulated the people.
Social Strengths
Communist control in the
countryside
had been strengthened: Peasants were living and working in the
Kolkhozes
, supervised by Party officials and
NKVD units
stationed at each MTS.
Urbanisation had created a far stronger
proletariat
.
Socialist values were promoted through
education, propaganda
the leadership cult, public celebrations, arts, culture and
show trials
.
The impact of the Civil war on the national minorities; the 1922 constitution
After the civil war the government
ceased to support 'national self-determination'
.
Interdependence groups were denounced as counter-revolutionary.
Georgia oppression
- 1922, demands from Georgia were brutally crushed on Stalin's orders (Lenin condemned this).
RSFSR replaced by USSR in December 1922
- union of soviet Socialist Republics. Officially a federation of republics on similar footing, states which made up union were under firm Moscow control.