In 1822, there were revolutionary outbreaks in France and Russia

Holy Alliance declined due to divisions among its members and to Great Britain’s criticism of its work.

Holy Alliance took part in military interventions in Spain, Naples and Piedmont and reinstated absolutism.

After king abdication, parliamentary monarchy was established under Louis Philippe of Orleans

Belgians proclaimed independence from Netherlands Kingdom

In 1830, groups of intellectuals organised the July Revolution

Charles X overthrow influenced nationalistic uprising in Poland

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte proclaimed the Second French Empire in 1851

Revolution of 1848 spread to cities in Austria, the German Confederation, Italy and Russia.

all led to a revolution in which Second French Republic was proclaimed

workers suffered the most from effects of an intense international economic crisis that began in 1845

LIBERTY LEADING THE PEOPLE BY FERDINAND-EUGÈNE-VICTOR DELACROIX (1798–1863)

political parties were organized to promote their ideas and interests.

democrats defended universal manhood suffrage under the principle of ‘one man, one vote’

The North won under the leadership of Abraham Lincoln

became a symbol of great waves of European migrants arriving in U.S

Much of British success due to reforming its laws

For most of the 19th century, Queen Victoria was the monarch

1848 revolution led to establishment of censitary suffrage and constitutional texts in Prussia and Austria

45 million Europeans emigrated to young countries and colonial dominions

the attempt to form an independent state led to the American Civil War (1861–1865).

great territorial expansion to the west resulted in the submission of the indigenous population

Political stability attracted mass immigration from Europe

regime was established that maintained universal manhood suffrage.

Instead of elections, the emperor called plebiscites or referendums