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Developmental Psychology - Coggle Diagram
Developmental Psychology
6.1 The Lifespan and Physical Development in Childhood
Prenatal Influences on Development
Genetics
ex: process of developing motor skills
Determine which abilities we are born with
Teratogens致畸胎原
Can cause harm if ingested by the mother
they can pass through the placenta barrier
Alcohol
FAS (fetal alcohol syndrome)
mental retardation
malformed skull
caused by heavy drinking during pregnancy
fetal alcohol effect
caused by moderate drinking
learning disabilities
behavioral problems
not all symptoms of FAS
Psychoactive drugs精神药物
newborns can share their mother’s drug addiction
withdrawal symptoms can lead to death
Polluting chemicals in the environment
Motor/Sensory Development
Reflexes
Reflexes
inborn, automatic responses to specific stimuli
Reflexes humans are born with
rooting reflex觅食反射
当抚摸婴儿的脸颊时，婴儿会转头，试图把物体放进嘴里
sucking reflex吸吮反射
当物体放在婴儿嘴里时，他会吮吸
grasping reflex抓握反射
婴儿会试图抓住放在手上或脚上的物体
moro reflex拥抱反射
婴儿受到惊吓时，会伸出四肢，然后缩回来
让自己尽可能小
Babinski reflex巴宾斯基反射
当抚摸婴儿的脚时，他会把脚趾伸开
we lose these reflexes later in life
The Newborn’s Senses
Hearing
babies can hear before birth
minutes after birth, baby will try to turn head toward mother’s voice
Taste and smell
same basic preferences as we do
love sugar
Vision
not the dominant sense
hearing is
can see well 8-12 inches in front of them
everything else is a blur
normal vision by 12 months old
prefer face like objects
Motor Development
Roll over
five and a half months old
Stand
eight- nine months
Walk alone
fifteen months
The effect of environment is slight
6.2 Social Development in Childhood
Body Contact & Harry Harlow
:star:
Harry Harlow
用两只人工线框“猴”养小猴
其中一个人身上有一个婴儿可以用的奶瓶
另一个用柔软的材料包裹
when frightened, infants preferred soft mom
证明了身体舒适在attachment形成中的重要性
由真正的母亲抚养的猴子在新环境中不那么害怕
Security, safety, comfort, and affection
play fundamental roles in the attachment
secure social bonds
Attachment Theory
Attachment
照顾者和孩子之间的互惠关系
Attachment Styles and Mary Ainsworth
:star:
观察婴儿被置于陌生环境时的反应
parents left for a short time and returned
three reaction categories
secure attachment
66% of babies in experiment
当父母在场时，自信地探索新环境，当父母离开时，感到痛苦，当父母回来时，回到父母身边
avoidant attachment
21% of participants
可能会抗拒被父母抱着，会去探索新的环境。当他们回来的时候，他们不会去父母那里寻求安慰。
anxious/ambivalent attachment
12% of participants
对父母有矛盾的反应。当父母离开时，他们可能会表现出极大的压力，但当父母回来时，他们拒绝得到父母的安慰。
Konrad Lorenz and Familiarity
:star:
imprinting胚教
the rigid process by which some animals form strong and nearly immediate attachments early in life
gosling ducks🐤
Once formed, this attachment is difficult to reverse.
attachments based on familiarity form during a
critical period
Parenting Styles and Baumrind
:star:
Authoritarian parents专制型父母
倾向于极其严格和苛刻，并期望盲目服从。这些父母几乎采取军国主义的方式来管教孩子
Authoritative parents威信型父母
期望别人服从，但要以一种更积极的方式来做。规则是明确的，并向孩子解释这些规则的原因。鼓励交流，父母支持他们的孩子。
Permissive parents宽容型父母
轻易地满足孩子的愿望。他们对孩子没有很高的期望，对孩子的要求也很少。孩子们很少受到惩罚，即使他们行为不端。
Sigmund Freud and Psychosexual Development
oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage (in which the Oedipus complex occurs), latent stage, and genital stage.
Social Learning and Albert Bandura
6.3 Cognitive Development in Childhood
Jean Piaget :warning:
schemas
cognitive rules we use to interpret the world
随着体验的发生，这些新信息被用于修改、添加或更改先前存在的schemas
Assimilation同化
we incorporate our experiences into this existing schemata
accommodation调和
our schemas to incorporate information provided by new experiences.
The Sensorimotor Stage
Ages: Birth to 2
:red_flag:
The infant knows the world through their
movements and sensations👀
object permanence
the awareness that objects continue to exist when not perceived
The Preoperational Stage
Ages: 2 to 7 Years
:red_flag:
begins to acquire
language
💬
don’t understand
conservation
egocentric
自我中心的
—they have difficulty understanding the views of others
begin to develop
the theory of mind
a general understanding of their own and others’ mental states
autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
很难有
Concrete Operational Stage
Ages: 7 to 11 Years
:red_flag:
begin to understand the concept of
conservation
and the
mathematical transformations
inductive logic归纳逻辑-->个别到一般
The Formal Operational Stage
Ages: 12 and Up
:red_flag:
think
abstractly
and reason about
hypothetical problems
Abstract thought
emerges
moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues
infer and deduce
6.4 Adolescent Development
Physical development
begins with puberty, the time when we mature sexually
Puberty follows a surge of hormones
Timing may be different.
limbic system大多固定了
frontal lobe lags behind
limbic system: more primitive and basic emotions and motivation.
frontal lobe: rational thinking🤔, planning, and the abstract thought
Cognitive development
nobody understand me phenomenon
imaginary audience phenomenon
（spotlight effect）
Developing reasoning power
Concepts like right, wrong, good, evil, justice, and equality all rely on the ability to think abstractly
6.5 Adulthood and Aging
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
:warning:
Infancy (birth to 1 yr.)
Trust vs. Mistrust
如果需要得到满足，婴儿就会产生基本的信任感。
Toddlerhood (1 to 3 yrs.)
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt 生理层面
蹒跚学步的孩子会培养探索和锻炼自己意志的信心，否则他们会怀疑自己的能力。
Preschool (3 to 6 yrs.)
Initiative vs. guilt 能力
孩子们将学会自己动手做事情，否则他们会为自己渴望独立而感到内疚
Elementary School (6 yrs. to puberty)
Competence vs. Inferiority学习水平
孩子们学会享受全身心投入一项任务，否则他们会感到自卑
Adolescence (teens into 20s)
Identity vs. Confusion自我意识
青少年会尝试各种角色，努力寻找自我意识和身份认同，否则他们会对自己是谁感到困惑
Young Adulthood (20s to 40s)
Intimacy vs. Isolation独立发展
年轻人培养了形成持久亲密爱情的能力，否则他们会感到孤独
Middle Adulthood (40s to 60s)
Generativity vs. Stagnation 对新人、后代的关照和培养
人们开始通过家庭和工作体验到一种贡献感，或者他们可能会感到缺乏目标
Late Adulthood (late 60s and up)
Integrity vs. Despair
回顾他们的一生，人们会感到满足或绝望
6.6 Moral Development
Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Thinking :warning:
Lawrence Kohlberg
posed moral dilemmas
Heinz dilemma
约等于我不是药神的故事
preconventional（9岁前）
obey rules to gain
concrete rewards or avoid punishments
self-interested, how the choice affects themselves个人利益
conventional（6年级-初一）
make the choice based on
how others will view them
uphold laws
and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order
postconventional（青少年后期）
relies on the idea of human rights and justice
self-defined
ethical principles involved
the morality of societal rules are examined,
not blindly accepted
Criticisms of Kohlberg
这是个人主义
Jonathan Haidt
moral intuition
Joshua
Despite the logic, the personal dilemma engaged emotions that altered moral judgement
Hannah Arendt
moral action
depends on social influences
6.7 Gender and Sexual Orientation
social connection
boys
form large groups
competitive
girls
play in smaller groups
imitative
aggression
boys
harmful physical aggression
girls
acts of relational aggression
passing along malicious gossip
Gender role
the social expectations that guide men’s and women’s behavior
vary over time and place
Gender identity
Social learning theory
Albert Bandura
gender typing（the acquisition of a traditional masculine or female role）
儿童通过观察和模仿他人与性别相关的行为，以及通过自己的某些行为受到奖励或惩罚，来获得自己的身份
distinct from sexual orientation