Exam topics
Variation in language: according to the user and according to use.
Language functions and their implementation in sentence structure.
Choices in the act of communication: subjective vs. objective representation, semantic roles of clause elements.
Choices in the act of communication: general vs. restricted validity, direct vs. indirect speech presentation.
Choices in the act of communication: static vs. dynamic representation, factual, hypothetical and neutral representation.
Linking and grammatical cohesion – referring expressions.
Linking and grammatical cohesion – substitution and ellipsis.
Linking and grammatical cohesion – conjunctives.
Information processing. Theme and focus. Marked focus and marked theme.
Fronting, inversion and cleft sentences.
Postponement and existential sentences.
Written vs. spoken language.
Formal vs. informal language.
Polite vs. familiar language.
Speech acts and politeness.
dialect
register
field
mode
tenor
activity
relationships
written/spoken, humorous...
standard
nonstandard
regional
social
rhotic, nonrhotic
neutral, RP
COMPONENTS of the act of communication
addresser
adressee
context
contact
code
message
FUNCTIONS
emotive
phatic
poetic
referential
metalingual
conative
objective - presented as a fact
subjective - information presented from his point of view
can be indicated by modal expressions
epistemic (extrinsic) expresses degrees of deduced certainty (possibility, prediction - they might...)
deontic (intrinsic) - expresses control over the event or action - permission, obligation, volition
He must learn to swim... You may go to the party
emotional expressions - Gosh! Wow! Yeeeey
general - valid for everyone (one, you, we... - general subject)
restricted validity - introduces a specific point of view (To him, she is perfect.)
direct speech presentation
indirect speech presentation
quotetiontation marks, sometimes reporting clause
not exact words - she said something like...
STATIC - the action is regarded as a state/quality not in the process of changing
DYNAMIC - the action/process is considered in development and thus potentionally leading to a new state (dynamic verbs...)
John is being funny. (Right now, probably it is going to change soon.)
factual - fact
neutral - He tried to get there.
hypothetical - wish, suppose, would like, owuld rather... (assumes falsehood)
exophora
endophora
anaphora
cataphora
coherence
cohesion
grammatical cohesive relation
lexical
structural
additive
adversive
causal (cause, reason, result, purpose, condition) - relate new information to what has been already said
temporal
contrast, consession
sequence - then, text, after that
simultaneity - at the same time, meanwhile...
enumeration
reinforcement (on top of that, furthermore
exemplification, explanation (for instance)
summation and generalization (in conclusion)
personal reference
demonstrative reference
comparative reference
SUBSTITUTION
ELLIPSIS
both nominal, verbal, clausal
textual ellipsis (recoverable from the verrbal context)
situational ellipsis
structural ellipsis (depends on grammatical knowledge)
theme - topic - initial position
focus
end-focus
end-weight
moved to earlier position
(divided focus)
theme and focus coincide (such as one-word utterances- respenses to questions - who did this? MARY.
emphatic, contrastive, semi-given marked theme (this, these issues...)
connected to tenor
formal - in socially careful and distant situations (public speeches, academic writings)
informal - more intimate and casual situations
most grammatical structures are regarded as neutral, but there are usually some TYPICAL MARKERS of FORMALITY:
complex sentences
explicit clause and sentence linkers
non-finite and verbless clauses
uncontracted forms
generic pronoun one
politeness principle
do not impose
give options
make the adressee feel good
positive polightness - warmth towards the adressee, compliments
negative politeness - tact, tentativeness, avioding imposition on others
representatives
directives
commissives
expressives
declarations
declarations, resigrantions
apology, thanking, congratulations
bets, promisses
questions, commands, requests, threats
statements, announcements, reports, conclusions
written - regarded as secondary
speech - socialize individuals
exchange information
referential, emotive, phatic, conative
permanent
transmission of cultural knowledge, literature, history, religion
entertainment
for information
social contact
more simpler, normal non-fluency, checking understanding, lexical sparsity, interaction features
fronting without inversion
fronting with inversion
cleft sentences
a sentence element (C,O,A) may be moved to the front of the sentence - thus the fronted element is given a kind of psychological prominence
achieves emphatic theme, contrastive theme, semi-given theme (these issues...) HAPPY she was.
subject-verb inversion normally takes place with INTRANSITIVE verbs or POSITION (be, stay, lie) or verbs of MOTION
subject-operator inversion - takes place when the fronted element has negative meaning (if there is no operator, then DO is used
Seldom did words of approval pass his lips...
the man he hated the most...
IT was Robert THAT I gave my money to. (empty theme)
PSEUDO-CLEFT - WHat he's done is write a letter.
POSTMONEMENT - long and complex phrases - end-weight principle
EXISTENTIAL SENTENCES -THERE ARE some problems that i would like to talk about... (other then BE - here may come a day we will have to talk again, if regarding space, there can be omitted)
postponing objects.. clausal subject - IT is worth the effort, trying to be a good teacher
POSTPONING AGENTIVE SUBJECT - in order to achieve passive voice (The book that you are looking for was taken be ROBERT.