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Forensics - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Neuroticism: This is the mental state that they are in
      - Psychoticism: Measures to be insensitive and uncaring.
      - Extrovertism: Being very sociable with people
    - - Cultural bias:
        Bartol et al studied hispanics inside prison. They noticed that they had lower E than the control. This is because there is a difference in culture in the sample that eysenck chose. This means his results lack validity
      - Research Support:
        Eysenck and Eysenck conducted research on 2070 male prisoners and divided them into groups based on ENP. Criminals had a higher scores than controls, this leads to support.
        However, Farrington reviewed several studies and found that criminals scored highly on P not E/N.
        In addition, from EEG studies, there was no difference of extraverts and introverts
      - Mismeasurement of results
        This theory suggests that personality can be measured with a test. Critics suggested that this is not possible. So therefore this theory needs measurement improvements
      - Biological basis
        Other theories are able to give support as they are all funded on the same basis
      - The idea that all behaviour is determined by one type: Many have stated that this idea is too reductionist. Moffitt noticed that there were several types of male offender and it could not be clarified by one single offender type. In fact there were several distinct types
  - - - Level I
        
        Stage 1
        Rules are obeyed to stop punishment
        
        Stage 2
        Rules are obeyed for personal gain
      - Level II
        
        Stage 4
        This is to maintain social order
        
        Stage 3
        Rules are obeyed for approval
      - Level III
        
        Stage 5
        Rules are obeyed on general democratic basis to help others
        
        Stage 6
        Individual establishes his or her own values and abides by them
    - - Criminals have a preconceived morality. This level of morality is based on personal gain and security. Thus they commit crimes as they think they can get away with the crime.
        Criminals take an egocentric point of view and are self-centered
    - - Minimisation
        An attempt to deny the seriousness of the offence.
        They may label it as 'just a joke', 'supporting the family'
        Barabaree researched rapists and found that 54% denied anything happened, 40% of the admittees downplayed the toll that it actually took on the victim
      - Hostile attribution bias (HAB)
        Evidence suggests that it is the tendency to misenterpret other peoples actions and mistake them as being violent. Even though they are not.
        Justye et al showed several criminals ambiguous photos of facial expressions. Criminals were more likely to see it as a threat
    - - Application of research
        Understanding the cognitive distortions are important in measuring the behaviour. This theory has helped with treatment programmes such as CBT.
      - Individual differences
        Rein and Thornton suggested that there was a link of the type of crime and the level of morality present. For example people who commited theft were more likely to be at a pre-conventional level of morality.
        Even though that low IQ people usually have a lower moral reasoning, they commit less crime which suggests that maybe intelligence is more of an important factor
      - Alternative theories of moral reasoning
        Gibbs provided a revised version of moral reasoning. Based on simply mature and immature.
        He suggested that Kohlberg's theory suffers heavily from cultural bias. This is supported by Piaget's view of criminals being like children
      - Descriptive not explanatory
        They do not tend to allow us to see a criminal before the crime is committed. Therefore it is less useful in predicting criminal behaviours, which is an important part in behaviour.
      - Level of moral reasoning
        Palmer and Collin compared moral reasoning between female non-offenders and offenders. Using a questionnaire of different morality questions.
        The criminal group showed less mature predictions.
  - - - Difficulty of testing
        Despite Sutherland's hypothesis stating that there will be a way to test this, there is no method of studying. Therefore it is difficult to use as a predictor.
      - Alternative explanations
        Sutherland suggested that the response of the family is crucial is likely to engage in offending.
        If the family is shown to support criminal reasoning then they are more likely to commit the crime.
        This is supported by the fact that criminal behaviour tends to run in families (Farrington: Intergenerational crime)
      - Shift of focus
        Sutherland was able to shift criminology's focus away from the atavistic form, as well as those that deems criminality as a weakness and an act of immorality. This takes a more nurture based focus on crime.
        This is good as it doesn't conclude a eugenics treatment
      - Individual differences
        Not everyone who has that family is criminal despite the socialisation.
      - Explanatory power
        This is able to account for crime in all sectors of society. So 'blue' and 'white' collar crime can be explained by this theory
  - - - Unconscious concepts
        Lack of falsifiability. This means they are not scientific and lose validity in the grand scheme of things
      - Research support
        
        14/44 were 'affectionless psychopaths'
        
        12/14 had experienced maternal deprivation
        However this was very biases and no correlation between the results.
      - Contradictory evidence
        There is very little evidence that children without a fully formed same-sex parent are less law-abiding as adults. This contradicts Blackburns statement.
        If the children of the parents go on to commit crime, how can we accredit that just to this theory? Could be genetics.
      - Gender bias
        An implicit assumption within Freudian theory is the idea that girls develop a weaker superego than boys. Having not experienced castration anxiety so they under less pressure to identify with their mothers. So therefore a less developed superego. This means they should commit more crime, yet they don't
- - - - Research support
        Keen et al studied the progress that was made in offenders from this programme. At first the results were not conclusive as not many actually took the approach seriously. However, since the programme, there was an increased awareness and control of anger
        However, Blackburn argues that this is not the case. He noted that, whilst there was a considerable effect short term, there is little evidence for the long term which is insanely important for criminal activity. This is most likely due to the artificial role the researcher is shown to elicit into the study.
      - Comparison with behaviour modification
        This approach attempts to tackle one of the causes for offending. Rather than focussing on superficial surface behaviour. This offers an insight into their criminality. Therefore this is more likely to have a lower rate of recidivism
      - Expensive and requires commitment
        Anger management programmes are expensive to run as they require the services of highly trained specialists. Many prisons do not have these kind of resources , so whether or not this programme can actually be reached has reasonable doubt.
      - Eclectic approach
        Anger management work on many different ways. It includes the starting events. Then it starts to enter into the social approach. This is good as it takes a multidisciplinary approach to solving recidivism as it encompasses a diverse range of explanations.
  - - - Feminist critique
        Despite the enthusiastic uptake of this approach. Many feminists have issue with this. They say for crimes such as rape and domestic violence there is a power imbalance inside those crimes means that they end up blaming the victim.
      - Relies on the offender showing remorse
        The success of this depends on how they take upon how much an offender feels remorse for their actions. Prisoners could use this as a way to get out of prison or for a reduced sentence rather than the willingful apology to the survivor.
        Or maybe the victim may seek revenge themselves
        This means they may not lead to positive outcomes when ps don't agree to take part in the best intentions.
      - Soft options
        Despite the fact that this approach decreases the rates of recidivism. They are seen as a soft approach that disagrees with the classic approach of being 'tough on crime'
      - Diversity of programmes
        There is a degree of flexibility in this approach. This means that it can be catered to a specific criminal type and the most effective way to treat said criminals.
        However, this is one of the things that makes the programme extremely expensive however.
  - - - Universities of crime
        Prisoners could understand others crimes and learn how to do it without being caught. This may mean that they are able to reoffend easier.
      - Alternatives to custodial sentencing
        Davies and Raymond, in a review of custodial sentencing , concluded that government ministers often exaggerate the benefits of prison to appear tough on crime. This in fact does not do anything to deter prisoners.
        Alternatives may be better.
      - Custodial prisons can have rehab
        Most of the prisons have schemes to reorientation offenders back into society
      - Evidence supports psychological effects
        Bartol has suggested that prisoners find prisons punishing and evil. 25% of women and 15% of young men report symptoms of psychosis in prison. This may provide that this style of prisoning may be too barbaric.
        although, not everyone feels these same symptoms in prison, so we cannot make a general law of this
  - - - Ethical issues
        The terms of behaviour modification is seen as dehumanising and humiliating and makes them seem like a child. As the scheme is obligatory for prisoners and not optional. Even Though they can decide not to care about this. They are denied of 'privileges' such as
      - Only surface behaviour
        Due to the immorality of some prisoners, they may only be participating to get a shorter sentence. Rather than actually changing on a deeper level. This shows that in these sections participant are offered an opportunity to change and they decide to reject this for whatever reason.
      - Little rehabilitative value
        Blackburn stated that due to this approach being infatuated around prisons, it lacks ecological validity and the norms learnt from everyday life will not be present. This is because law abiding behaviour is rarely reinforced
      - Research support
        Hobbs and Holt introduced a token economy programme with a group of young delinquents across 3 behavioural units. They all showed considerably more good behaviour than the control group.
      - Easy to implement
        There is no need for expertise. This makes it cheap and widely accessible for a lot of different prisoners.
        However, if not applied correctly these steps could lose value. This is shown by Bassett and Blanchard who found any benefits of this system were lost when guards were inconsistent with rewards
- - - - Twin studies: The fact that MZ twins have a higher concordance gives support for this theory. HOWEVER MZ twins may simply be treated more similarly meaning that it could also be nurture
      - Adoption studies conclusions: The reason that they may resort to crime is due to the stress and anxiety being adopted can bring, rather than their genetics
      - Confusion between nurture and nature: Despite the fact that most families shared genetics, it did not mean that the reason the families were all criminals is due to sharing genetics, instead it is because they all share the same upbringing
  - - - Not direct: Research has suggested that NT plays more of a role in everyday tasks. The lack of these NTs leads to mental illnesses. The mental illnesses cause the crime, not the lack of NTs, therefore it can be argued that this theory doesn't apply a direct explanation for criminal behaviour
      - Reductionist
      - Research support: Higley et al (1996) conducted research in the links between serotonin and aggression. This was conducted in 'nonhuman primates'. This provides support for serotonin's role in criminal behaviour.
        However, they found no links to impulsivity which somewhat discredits the theory
        In addition This was conducted on animals, not humans
    - - Serotonin: This regulates mood and impulse control. If not enough is reached, then it can lead to violent behaviours
      - Dopamine: This plays an important role in addiction to drugs. This increases its probability to cause criminal behaviour
      - Noradrenaline: High levels of this can lead to violent behaviours as this NT is responsible for the flight-fight.