Forensics

Biological explanations

Atavistic form Lombroso suggested that some people were simply 'genetic throwbacks' he used this to justify the statement that criminals were a sub-species of human. This meant that they had certain identifying features.
Some of these included:

  • Strong and prominent jaw
  • Curly hair
  • Fleshy lips
    He based this all on research he did on Italian convicts and found that 40% of these convicts had these features

Contradictory evidence: Goring set out to do similar evidence. He found that there was no distinct group of criminals with a certain facial appearance
HOWEVER, they did find out that these criminals did have lower IQ which provides some support for the sub-species hypothesis

Poor control in Lombroso's research He did not compare his results with a control group, this meant that his results may not have been significant if he had done this. Meaning his work was not scientifically credible

Scientific Racism: Several critics, including Matt DeLisi, have drawn attention to the distinct racial undertones within Lombroso's work, many of the characteristics of criminals are found in people of African Descent. This means that his theory potentially supports eugenics. Whether or not this was intentional, this is up for debate, it still is a HIGHLY controversial aspect that overshadows some part of criminology

Contribution to criminology: Lombroso was credited the 'father of modern criminology'. He is credited as shifting the view of criminals away from the idea that they were just morally wrong. He instead mentions that a specific group pf people are offenders and we can watch out for specific groups.

Genetic explanations: This states that there is a gene identified with criminals that has allowed them to do said crimes.

Family studies Farrington conducted research on 400 london families and found connections between family and crime. He found that: 75% of families with a criminal daughter also had a criminal son and 75% of convicted sons had convicted parents.

Adoption studies These allow the comparison of families to their biological and adopted mothers too see whether or not the genetics has a significant effect. The adoption studies generally showed a lower concordance of the data

Twin studies: Raine suggested that MZ twins had a higher concordance rate when compared too DZ twins. This was 52% for MZ twins.

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Twin studies: The fact that MZ twins have a higher concordance gives support for this theory. HOWEVER MZ twins may simply be treated more similarly meaning that it could also be nurture

Adoption studies conclusions: The reason that they may resort to crime is due to the stress and anxiety being adopted can bring, rather than their genetics

Confusion between nurture and nature: Despite the fact that most families shared genetics, it did not mean that the reason the families were all criminals is due to sharing genetics, instead it is because they all share the same upbringing

Neural explanation

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Related hormones relating to criminal behaviour

Psychological explanations

Eyesenck's criminal personality

Approaches to finding crime

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Dealing with criminals

Anger management

Restorative justice
Prisoners pay back in a form of way

Custodial sentencing
This involves the criminal staying at prison

The restorative justice programme
According to Braithwaite 'crime hurts, justice should heal'. Restorative justice is a process of having managed collaboration between offender and victim. Based on the related principles of healing and empowerment. A supervised meeting between these 2 individual are set up. This allows them both to become more understanding.

Changing the emphasis
They change the emphasis from the punishment being due to the 'needs of the state' and rather onto the 'needs of the people'. This allows a more individualistic, serious tone to the offender.

Restorative Justice Council (RJC)
The RJC is an independent body whose job it is to assign who gets the restorative justice that is so dearly needed.
They suggest that this is used in other places such as schools etc.

Serotonin: This regulates mood and impulse control. If not enough is reached, then it can lead to violent behaviours

Dopamine: This plays an important role in addiction to drugs. This increases its probability to cause criminal behaviour

Noradrenaline: High levels of this can lead to violent behaviours as this NT is responsible for the flight-fight.

Not direct: Research has suggested that NT plays more of a role in everyday tasks. The lack of these NTs leads to mental illnesses. The mental illnesses cause the crime, not the lack of NTs, therefore it can be argued that this theory doesn't apply a direct explanation for criminal behaviour

Reductionist

Research support: Higley et al (1996) conducted research in the links between serotonin and aggression. This was conducted in 'nonhuman primates'. This provides support for serotonin's role in criminal behaviour.
However, they found no links to impulsivity which somewhat discredits the theory
In addition This was conducted on animals, not humans

Biological basis: Eysenck suggested that these personality traits were in fact Biological in origin.

  • Extraverts: They have an underactive nervous system meaning they seek excitement
  • Neurotics They are seen to be nervous and jumpy. This is because their ANS is overactive

Key terms

Neuroticism: This is the mental state that they are in

Psychoticism: Measures to be insensitive and uncaring.

Extrovertism: Being very sociable with people

The criminal personality: He suggested that the criminal personality. This means that a median between neuroticism and extraversion. They'll also score highly on psychoticism.

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The role of socialisation: He saw them as developmentally immature. This meant that they were associated with immediate gratification.
Due to the fact that they had altered nervous systems means that they couldn't communicate

Cultural bias:
Bartol et al studied hispanics inside prison. They noticed that they had lower E than the control. This is because there is a difference in culture in the sample that eysenck chose. This means his results lack validity

Research Support:
Eysenck and Eysenck conducted research on 2070 male prisoners and divided them into groups based on ENP. Criminals had a higher scores than controls, this leads to support.
However, Farrington reviewed several studies and found that criminals scored highly on P not E/N.
In addition, from EEG studies, there was no difference of extraverts and introverts

Mismeasurement of results
This theory suggests that personality can be measured with a test. Critics suggested that this is not possible. So therefore this theory needs measurement improvements

Biological basis
Other theories are able to give support as they are all funded on the same basis

The idea that all behaviour is determined by one type: Many have stated that this idea is too reductionist. Moffitt noticed that there were several types of male offender and it could not be clarified by one single offender type. In fact there were several distinct types

Cognitive explanations

Level of moral reasoning

Level I

Level II

Level III

Stage 1
Rules are obeyed to stop punishment

Stage 2
Rules are obeyed for personal gain

Stage 4
This is to maintain social order

Stage 3
Rules are obeyed for approval

Stage 5
Rules are obeyed on general democratic basis to help others

Stage 6
Individual establishes his or her own values and abides by them

Kohlberg's model and Criminality

Criminals have a preconceived morality. This level of morality is based on personal gain and security. Thus they commit crimes as they think they can get away with the crime.
Criminals take an egocentric point of view and are self-centered

Cognitive distortions
These are errors and biases in people's information categorised from faulty thinking

Minimisation
An attempt to deny the seriousness of the offence.
They may label it as 'just a joke', 'supporting the family'
Barabaree researched rapists and found that 54% denied anything happened, 40% of the admittees downplayed the toll that it actually took on the victim

Hostile attribution bias (HAB)
Evidence suggests that it is the tendency to misenterpret other peoples actions and mistake them as being violent. Even though they are not.
Justye et al showed several criminals ambiguous photos of facial expressions. Criminals were more likely to see it as a threat

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Application of research
Understanding the cognitive distortions are important in measuring the behaviour. This theory has helped with treatment programmes such as CBT.

Individual differences
Rein and Thornton suggested that there was a link of the type of crime and the level of morality present. For example people who commited theft were more likely to be at a pre-conventional level of morality.
Even though that low IQ people usually have a lower moral reasoning, they commit less crime which suggests that maybe intelligence is more of an important factor

Alternative theories of moral reasoning
Gibbs provided a revised version of moral reasoning. Based on simply mature and immature.
He suggested that Kohlberg's theory suffers heavily from cultural bias. This is supported by Piaget's view of criminals being like children

Descriptive not explanatory
They do not tend to allow us to see a criminal before the crime is committed. Therefore it is less useful in predicting criminal behaviours, which is an important part in behaviour.

Level of moral reasoning
Palmer and Collin compared moral reasoning between female non-offenders and offenders. Using a questionnaire of different morality questions.
The criminal group showed less mature predictions.

Differential association theory
This suggests that criminal activity is learned through observation

Criminals learn how to act from deviant families meaning that when they eventually are free, they tend to reoffend as it is the only values that they actually know

When socialised we are presented into their specific values of the law. If this is criminal, then they may not have respect for the law

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Difficulty of testing
Despite Sutherland's hypothesis stating that there will be a way to test this, there is no method of studying. Therefore it is difficult to use as a predictor.

Alternative explanations
Sutherland suggested that the response of the family is crucial is likely to engage in offending.
If the family is shown to support criminal reasoning then they are more likely to commit the crime.
This is supported by the fact that criminal behaviour tends to run in families (Farrington: Intergenerational crime)

Shift of focus
Sutherland was able to shift criminology's focus away from the atavistic form, as well as those that deems criminality as a weakness and an act of immorality. This takes a more nurture based focus on crime.
This is good as it doesn't conclude a eugenics treatment

Individual differences
Not everyone who has that family is criminal despite the socialisation.

Explanatory power
This is able to account for crime in all sectors of society. So 'blue' and 'white' collar crime can be explained by this theory

Psychodynamic explanations

The maternal deprivation theory
John Bowlby argued that the ability to form meaningful relationships in adulthood was dependent upon a maternal bond.
Failure to bond, this means that they could be considered to be affectionless psychopathology.

Inadequate superego
Blackburn argued that the superego is somehow defiant or inadequate, then the ID is able to have 'free rein' and not properly controlled.

  • The weak superego: Same sex parent is absent the child cannot internalise a fully formed super ego
  • Deviant superego: If the superego that the child internalises has deviant values
  • Over-harsh: they do the crime in a method to punish themselves for their actions.

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Unconscious concepts
Lack of falsifiability. This means they are not scientific and lose validity in the grand scheme of things

Research support

  • 14/44 were 'affectionless psychopaths'
  • 12/14 had experienced maternal deprivation
    However this was very biases and no correlation between the results.

Contradictory evidence
There is very little evidence that children without a fully formed same-sex parent are less law-abiding as adults. This contradicts Blackburns statement.
If the children of the parents go on to commit crime, how can we accredit that just to this theory? Could be genetics.

Gender bias
An implicit assumption within Freudian theory is the idea that girls develop a weaker superego than boys. Having not experienced castration anxiety so they under less pressure to identify with their mothers. So therefore a less developed superego. This means they should commit more crime, yet they don't

Psychological effects of custodial sentencing
Stress and depression: People in prison are considerably suicidal and self harms are of the roof. This also increases the risk of disturbance after prison
Institutionalisation: Having accepted to the norms and routines of prison life inmates may become so accustomed to these they cannot function outside it
Prisonization: They are socialised into accepting 'inmate code'. Behaviour that may unacceptable outside may be acceptable inside

Problem with Recidivism(reoffending)
In the Uk we have a custodial sentencing problem.
57% of our inmates will reoffend when they get out.

The aims of custodial sentencing

  • Deterrence: Designed to put off the the individual from engaging in offending behaviour. This sends a message not to offend
  • Incapatician: The offender is taken out to prevent them from offending again
  • Retribution: This is the idea of making the offender suffer.
  • Rehabilitation: In contrast to the above, many commentators would say that prisons need to make better people

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Universities of crime
Prisoners could understand others crimes and learn how to do it without being caught. This may mean that they are able to reoffend easier.

Alternatives to custodial sentencing
Davies and Raymond, in a review of custodial sentencing , concluded that government ministers often exaggerate the benefits of prison to appear tough on crime. This in fact does not do anything to deter prisoners.
Alternatives may be better.

Custodial prisons can have rehab
Most of the prisons have schemes to reorientation offenders back into society

Evidence supports psychological effects
Bartol has suggested that prisoners find prisons punishing and evil. 25% of women and 15% of young men report symptoms of psychosis in prison. This may provide that this style of prisoning may be too barbaric.
although, not everyone feels these same symptoms in prison, so we cannot make a general law of this

Cognitive behaviour treatment
Novaco suggests that cognitive factors trigger the emotional arousal which produces aggressive acts. Anger is quick to emerge in ambiguous situations.
These anger management programmes are a form of CBT - the individual is taught to recognise when they are losing control

Three stages

  • Cognitive preparation: Offender reflects on past experiences and recognise how it could have been handled better. The offender learns to identify those situations and therefore avoid them due to their irrationality
  • Skill acquisition: They are introduced to a range of techniques to control their anger-provoking situations more rationally. For example: Positive self talk or calmness. This is done to demonstrate that the offender is control of their own mood, rather than the opposite.
  • Application practise: They are given the opportunity to practise their skills in a controlled environment. This could be role play with the therapist and replaying previously triggering events. They then have the opportunity to 'test' these methods IRL

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Research support
Keen et al studied the progress that was made in offenders from this programme. At first the results were not conclusive as not many actually took the approach seriously. However, since the programme, there was an increased awareness and control of anger
However, Blackburn argues that this is not the case. He noted that, whilst there was a considerable effect short term, there is little evidence for the long term which is insanely important for criminal activity. This is most likely due to the artificial role the researcher is shown to elicit into the study.

Comparison with behaviour modification
This approach attempts to tackle one of the causes for offending. Rather than focussing on superficial surface behaviour. This offers an insight into their criminality. Therefore this is more likely to have a lower rate of recidivism

Expensive and requires commitment
Anger management programmes are expensive to run as they require the services of highly trained specialists. Many prisons do not have these kind of resources , so whether or not this programme can actually be reached has reasonable doubt.

Eclectic approach
Anger management work on many different ways. It includes the starting events. Then it starts to enter into the social approach. This is good as it takes a multidisciplinary approach to solving recidivism as it encompasses a diverse range of explanations.

Behaviour modification

Token economy
Based on operant conditioning. This involves reinforcing only the desired behaviour with a token that can be exchanged. This desirable behaviour can be literally just to behave and not try to kill each other.
All rewards should be made clear to the inmate before it is done so they know what they are working for.

Changing behaviour
As with all behaviour modification, the desired behaviour is selected and broken down into small steps. Everyone must be on the same regime of selective reinforcement. So, the prison officers may reinforce a particular prisoner for working positively in the yard
This whole programme is overlooked by prison officers.

Behaviorism
This approach inherently dwells on behaviourist principles of positive/negative reinforcement/punishment

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Ethical issues
The terms of behaviour modification is seen as dehumanising and humiliating and makes them seem like a child. As the scheme is obligatory for prisoners and not optional. Even Though they can decide not to care about this. They are denied of 'privileges' such as

Only surface behaviour
Due to the immorality of some prisoners, they may only be participating to get a shorter sentence. Rather than actually changing on a deeper level. This shows that in these sections participant are offered an opportunity to change and they decide to reject this for whatever reason.

Little rehabilitative value
Blackburn stated that due to this approach being infatuated around prisons, it lacks ecological validity and the norms learnt from everyday life will not be present. This is because law abiding behaviour is rarely reinforced

Research support
Hobbs and Holt introduced a token economy programme with a group of young delinquents across 3 behavioural units. They all showed considerably more good behaviour than the control group.

Easy to implement
There is no need for expertise. This makes it cheap and widely accessible for a lot of different prisoners.
However, if not applied correctly these steps could lose value. This is shown by Bassett and Blanchard who found any benefits of this system were lost when guards were inconsistent with rewards

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Key features

  • Focus on acceptance and responsibility
  • Can be met anywhere
  • Active rather than passive
  • Focuses on positive outcomes for survivors and offenders

Variations in the process
Not all programmes are based on moral reasoning. Some are based on actually based on the criminal amending their crimes. Some of which is giving money or even cleaning up what they ruined

Feminist critique
Despite the enthusiastic uptake of this approach. Many feminists have issue with this. They say for crimes such as rape and domestic violence there is a power imbalance inside those crimes means that they end up blaming the victim.

Relies on the offender showing remorse
The success of this depends on how they take upon how much an offender feels remorse for their actions. Prisoners could use this as a way to get out of prison or for a reduced sentence rather than the willingful apology to the survivor.
Or maybe the victim may seek revenge themselves
This means they may not lead to positive outcomes when ps don't agree to take part in the best intentions.

Soft options
Despite the fact that this approach decreases the rates of recidivism. They are seen as a soft approach that disagrees with the classic approach of being 'tough on crime'

Diversity of programmes
There is a degree of flexibility in this approach. This means that it can be catered to a specific criminal type and the most effective way to treat said criminals.


However, this is one of the things that makes the programme extremely expensive however.