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addiction - Coggle Diagram
addiction
brain neurochemistry evaluation
Paterson and Markou (2002) found that GVG (an epilepsy drug) reduces the surge of dopamine in the NAc that occurs after taking nicotine.
This reduces the addictive tendencies of nicotine and other drugs that boost dopamine levels in the brain.
This matters because it highlights the
link between dopamine and nicotine
and provides a method of treating nicotine addiction, which has fewer side effects than most smoking treatments.
D'Souza and Markou (2013) blocked the transmission of glutamate which resulted in a decrease in nicotine intake in rats, which is consistent with the role of this neurotransmitter
This is because glutamate enhances the dopamine-releasing effects of nicotine, so blocking it would decrease the effects of dopamine for longer.
This matters because it highlights the
link between glutamate and nicotine,
allowing researchers to devise treatments based on blocking the transmission of this neurotransmitter.
PD (parkinson's disease) is characterised by a gradual loss of dopamine producing nerve cells, causing symptoms of PD to appear.
Research suggests that smokers are less likely to get PD, suggesting that nicotine may have a neuroprotective function against the development of PD.
This provides further support for the
link between nicotine and dopamine
, while also providing some insight into possible treatments.
Cosgrove et al. (2014) studied the brains of men and women using PET scans, while smoking.
For women there was a strong dopamine effect in the dorsal putamen, whereas men had a strong effect in the ventral striatum.
These results suggest that men and women smoke for different reasons,
men for the nicotine effect and women to relieve stress.
Khaled et al. (2009) found that the incidence of depression was highest in long-term smokers and lowest in those who had never smoked.
Luk and Tsoh (2010) found similar results in a Chinese study, where smoking was associated with a greater risk of depression.
This highlights the
negative implications of nicotine in terms of both addictive effects and possible links to depression
.
gambling as an afdiction
DSM-5 RECLASSIFIED PROBLEM GAMBLING AS AN ADDICTIVE DISORDER BECAUSE IT SHARES MANY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBSTANCE ADDICTIONS
IT IS CURRENTLY THE ONLY ADDICTION IN THE SPECIAL CATEGORY OF BEHAVIOURAL ADDICTIONS IN DSM-5
vicarious reinforcement
;
the experience of seeing others being rewarded for their gambling through pleasure, enjoyment and occasionally money
this doesn't have to be a direct observation (can be newspaper, magazines and other media; they all report positively on big lottery winners, broadcast the glamour of horse racing)
This may be enough to trigger a desire for the same reinforcement for someone who hasn't gambled before.
direct positive reinforcement
Once a person started to gamble, there are 2 sources of direct positive reinforcement:
winning money and,
the ‘buzz’ that accompanies a gamble because it is exciting.
Gambling can also be an escape, although a temporary one. This is negative reinforcement (it offers distractions from aversive stimuli such as anxieties of everyday life).
variable reinforcement
under a variable reinforcement schedule, behaviour is reinforced intermittently. This produces the most persistent learning - A reward is given after an unpredictable number of responses
it take longer for learning to be established, but once it is established, it is much more resistant to extinction
it is possible to go for many spins without a payout at all, but the gambler continues to place wages even when the behaviour is no longer being reinforced.
this helps to explain why some pep[e continue to gamble despite big losses
The gambler learns that they will not win with every gamble but eventually they will win if they are persistent.
the ‘big win’ hypothesis = where gamblers will continue to gamble to repeat a ‘big win’ they have previously experienced
The ‘near miss’ hypothesis = a near miss, such as missing the jackpot by 1 number, creates a brief moment of excitement that can also encourage further gambling.
cue reactivity
such reinforces include:
the atmosphere of betting shops,
the colourful look of lottery scratch cards,
a TV horseracing channel,
or the exciting sounds of internet betting sites.
The presence of secondary reinforcers can cue the arousal that gamblers crave, even before they place the bet.
risk factors
personality
Eysenck personality questionnaire
Eysenck proposed the psychological resource model: Personality predisposes an individual to addiction - a neurotic personality type is the most vulnerable due to substances and the need to escape.
A neurotic personality type is characterised to be more moody, irritable and anxious.
AO3:
Gossop & Eysenck (1980)
gave the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire to 221 addicts and 310 non-addicts and found a difference in the personality of the two groups. They found that addicts scored higher on neuroticism and were more likely to suffer with anxiety and depression. This suggests that neuroticism is related to vulnerability to addiction.
Limson et al., (1991)
compared alcoholics and non-alcoholics on levels of personality and assessed the relationship between personality and neurological mechanisms, by measuring cerebrospinal fluid. They found that alcoholics had different personalities, with higher levels of aggression (part of Eysenck’s psychotism) and lower levels of cerebrospinal fluid (a negative correlation). This supports the idea that addiction is related to personality, which in turn may cause biological differences.
peer pressure
influence of peer pressure through
normative social influence, conformity and operant conditioning
'norms of behaviour' :
when a group of friends adopt an addictive behaviour, it becomes a 'norm of behaviour' and then becomes a group behaviour.
It can be used to show allegiance and membership to the group, to avoid ridicule.
AO3:
Thombs et al., (1997)
used a questionnaire with 2,213 high school and college students and found that alcohol consumption was linked to ‘norms of behaviour’ and drinking consumption was linked to close friends’ drinking consumption, demonstrating the strength of peer influence on addictive behaviour.
Wagner and Anthony (2002)
found that cannabis smokers were more likely to progress to cocaine usage, due to being in friendship groups where there were opportunities for new drug experiences. This demonstrates how peers can act as a gateway to other dependencies.
age
young
people: have an early onset of addictive behaviours which is also related to an increased risk of other behaviours, such as gateway drugs.
old
people: have an increased vulnerability which is also found in old age - 1/3rd of alcoholics develop addictions in retirement.
Age may be a factor, but people;e argue that a change in lifestyle, such as boredom or death, is another reason for addictions.
AO3:
Kendler et al. (2012)
used data from the National Swedish Adoption study. They looked at adults who had been adopted away as children from biological families in which at least one parent had an addiction. These people had a significantly greater risk of developing an addiction (8.6%) compared to those adopted away to individual with no addicted parent in their biological families (4.2%)
Research has suggested a possible link between certain dopamine receptors and addiction. One such gene is the
DRD2
gene that codes for D2 dopamine receptors. This A1 variant has been linked with smokers (48%), alcoholics (42%), gamblers (50%) as well as with other disorders, particularly autism.
stress
beck's viscous cycle:
coping through the addiction (the addictive behaviour) --> this leads to financial, social and medical problems --> which then causes a low mood --> repeat.
stress of withdrawal symptoms: when in height of addiction, someone feel happy, but withdrawal symptoms can make someone feel really low, then referring back to the addiction, causing a relapse.
a major source of stress: poor housing and economic deprivation
AO3:
AO3:
Cleck and Blendy (2008)
found a link between addictive drug usage (smoking, alcohol and cocaine) and exposure to chronic stressful life events, like sexual abuse (all three factors are linked). Furthermore, they also found that the longer an individual endures childhood abuse, the stronger the correlation in developing addictions later in life. However, such individuals also suffer from high levels of anxiety and depression.
AO3:
Kosten et al, (2000)
found that neonate rats who were subjected to isolation stress for 1 hour a day on their 2nd to 9th days of life, had greater tendency to administer cocaine when adults, in comparison to rats who did not suffer isolation stress. This suggests that early childhood (‘rathood’) stress leads to vulnerability of addiction.
brain's reward pathway (nicotine)
Nicotine
Nictonic receptor
VTA
Dopamine
NA
Mesolimbic Pathway
Nicotine binds with nicotinic recpetors in
ventral tegmental area (VTA)
. Binding triggers the release of dopamine from
nucleus accumbens (NA)
in the mesolimbic pathway.
The nicotine stimulates the release of
glutamate
, which triggers release of more dopamine - dopamine produces
pleasure and desire to repeat behaviours.
Nicotine activates natural opioids in the brain to create feelings of pleasure
Nictonie causes glutamate to speed up dopamine levels, and prevents GABA from slowing down after dopamine levels have risen = amplifies effect of dopamine and rewarding properties
Nictonie effects disapper after a few minutes, which creates the need to take more
1-2 mg of nicotine per cigarette, within 10 seconds, it reaches its peak levels in bloodstream
the role of glutamate = Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter. Glutamate pathways are linked to many other neurotransmitter pathways, and glutamate receptors are found throughout the brain and spinal cord.
niicotine addiction process
1) initiation
= The process by which an individual starts to become addicted.
Kandel and Wu (1995):
nicotine addiction begins when people begin to experiment smoking
social learning theory: young people begin smoking as consequence of social models around them
key terms: observation, imitation, reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement, role models, mediational processes: motivation
As we know from operant conditioning, behaviour is reinforced and frequency of behaviour is increased when rewarded
Addictive substances and activities are immediately rewarding, which means they are learning quickly to the reinforcement and individuals become ‘hooked’.
When smoking, nicotine enters the circulation rapidly and enters the brain within seconds. Therefore, a sudden ‘rush’ is activated in the individual and the behaviour is reinforced. This is because nicotine activities particular areas of the brain that regulate feelings of pleasure.
2) maintenance
= The process where an individual continues to behave in an addictive way, even when their addiction is having negative consequences on their physical, intellectual, emotional or social wellbeing.
When repeated many times, smoking becomes an established behaviour as a result of positive reinforcement
For example, an individual may manipulate their moods by smoking. Not being able to smoke makes them irritable, therefore smoking provides them relieve (negative reinforcement)
3) relapse: cue reactivity
= The process where an individual who has given up their addiction, starts to show signs of the addictive behaviour again.
Once an individual has stopped smoking, the urge to smoke again (relapse) persists long after the withdrawal symptoms disappear.
When an individual regularly smokes, the individual associates specific moods, situations and or environmental factors with the rewarding effect of nicotine, which can result in a relapse.
This can be explained through classical conditioning.
Nicotine activates reward pathways, increasing release of dopamine. The repetition of the act of smoking leads to a string conditioned association between the sensory aspects of smoking and reinforcing effects of nicotine.
characteristics of addiction
psychological dependence = a desire to continue taking the drug because its use is rewarding.
eg. anxiety, restlessness, irritability, poor concentration, depression, hallucination, anger, poor memory
why does psychological dependence arise? EPSTEIN 1994
2 information processing systems: rational and experimental.
rational
: operates according to rules of reasoning inherited by culture, conscious, analytical and relatively emotion-free actions
experimental
: acting irrationally, taking drugs due to emotional outburst, preconcious, automatic and strongly associated with emotion, acting behaviour thinking
physical dependence = a bodily state, caused by drug use, that results in withdrawal symptoms when the drug is reduced or stopped
eg. sweating, racing heart, tremor, nausea, headaches, strokes, heart attack, weight gain, insomnia etc.
tolerance
Isbell 1995:
study of prisoners using volunteer sampling
prisoners were kept in a constant state of intoxication
after a couple of weeks, prisoners showed changes in blood alcohol levels and behavioural signs, and continued to drop on following weeks
due to an increased tolerance for alchhol
metabolic tolerance - increase in enzymes needed to break down alchol and so metabolised quicker
learned tolerance - learned to cope with daily demands while drunk, and so got used to it
Tolerance arises when you have taken the drug for some time and it means that more of the drug is needed to have an effect
withdrawal syndrome
acute
withdrawal begins within hours of drug cessation and gradually resolves after a few weeks. during this stage, the physical cravings that the addict experiences are intense and persistent, as the body has yet to adjust to the loss of the drug it has become used to.
post-acute
withdrawal can last for months or even years after the person has stopped taking the drug. this is characterised by emotional and psychological turmoil as addicts experience alternating periods of dysfunction and near-normality as the brain slowly reorganises and re-balances itself.
nature of addiction (soper and miller 1983)
addiction involves:
a compulsive behavioural involvement
a lack of interest in other activities
association mainly with other addicts
physical and mental symptoms when attempting to stop
development of a nicotine addiction
DiFranza: -
limited exposure to nicotine, is enough to cause neuronal changes that stimulate the craving to smoke
large scale study in New Zealand, found 25% of particpants had experinced withdrawal symptoms after smoking fewer than 5 cigarettes
although brain activity to first dose of nicotine is limited, it soon becomes intense and widespread after a few more cigarettes
significant withdrawal symptoms
AO3:
Limited population validity - cannot be generalised to other countries and cultures
Fully conformed consent about the dangers of smoking is needed before taking part in the investigation