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Animal Behaviour - Coggle Diagram

- - - - large gamete cost
      - internal development of young
      - raise the young
      - finite number of eggs
    - - sperm is cheap and unlimited
      - they have no certainty of paternity so typically care less
      - maximise success by mating with many
      - intersexual competition since they compete to attract females
  - - - 1 male mates with multiple females
      - territorial (resource defence)
      - Harem defence (female defence)
      - Lek (males compete to get central position)
      - Uni-male or multi-male
    - - 1 female mates with several males
      - territorial- each male looks after own brood (simultaneous or sequential)
      - female access- each male looks after own brood (like phalaropes)
      - cooperative- males all care for all offspring
      - non-parental
    - - brief meet and mate but provide parental care
      - both sexes can have multiple mates and either sex can invest in offspring
      - several males form pair bond with several females
    - - largely parental care and dispersion in space and time
      - individuals adopt mating strategies that maximise their own fitness under given ecological conditions
      - sex differences
        
        females- high investment and limited matings so good quality
        
        males- generally invest less and unlimited matings so are less selective
- - - - all or nothing (2 types)
      - Zebras- flat ears for hostility, raised ears for friendliness
    - - Analog (intensities varies in proportion to stimulus strength)
      - Zebra- mouth openings
    - - communicate info about an entity to the communicating individual
      - enables animal to communicate with each other about surroundings
    - - communication about the sender itself
    - - 2 or more signals combined
    - - specific order of displays
    - - smae signals mean different things in context
      - Lion- roar means competition, territorial and dominance
    - - communication about communication , one display changes meaning of next
      - play bow announces that following actions are not aggressive or sexual
  - - - difficult for eavesdroppers to interpret (7kHz difficult to pinpoint)
      - selectively unavailable to predators (red spots in poecilid fish since predators are red colour blind)
      - specific to individuals
      - only display behaviour when there is benefit (audience)
  - - - echoes can interfere with rapidly repeated signal elements
      - typically with high frequencies
      - reduce degradation
        
        forests- low frequency and avoid trills unless notes are widely spread
        
        open terrain- trills are favoured and repeated elements can be detected during brief periods of good transmission
      - Interference
        
        biological noise
        
        solved with shift sound frequency or timing
        
        use sound amplification
        
        within species signal variation like different individuals have different vocalisation (like penguin colonies)
      - Background noise
        
        solved by avoiding signals when and where it is a problem
    - - like ectotherms- temperature affects metabolic rate and neuromuscular mechanisms
  - - - Blue monkeys- have whoop gobble call at 200Hz and sound attenuate less at 200Hz and little background noise
- - - - difficult to quantify since so different and fluid
      - comparative psychology studies proximate causation
      - behavioural ecology studies ultimate causation
      - Rats
        
        females adopt lordosis (receptive position) in presence of males, and males copulate
        
        expression not shown until adulthood
        
        revealed that testosterone masculinises nervous system and that hormones in adulthood are dependent on newborn
    - - Lorenz
        
        studied imprinting, found that Graylag Gesse imprint between 12-16 hours after hatching (critical or sensitive period)
        
        observed that hybrid species displayed some elements of each parent's courtship display
        
        found that duck hybrids sometimes exhibited display elements that were not in either paretn species but rather other species
      - Tinbergen
        
        studied female wasp rituals (bury larva, marks location kills prey and places above the burrow)
        
        noted that larva did not see burrowing, covering and killing so must be predetermined
        
        experimented by moving the bearing and saw wasp continue to use it
      - Tinbergen's 4 questions
        
        causation- proximate factors initiating behaviour
        
        development- relative role of genetics and learning in behaviour
        
        evolution- how it evolved from ancestral phenotype
        
        function- contribution to survival
  - - - performed without learning
      - it is stereotypic (performed same way each time)
      - cannot be modified by learning
      - each male duck performs a courtship display of precise movements and will not be accepted by a female unless the entire display is success
      - parents of spiders die before it hatches so young have no webs to copy yet replicates thousands of stereotyped sequential movements
    - - adults have red dot on lower bill that when pecked by chicks stimulates regurgitation of food
      - experiments revealed that red dot was necessary for release
  - - - the territorial holder stakes out boundaries by engaging in aggressive interactions with neighbouring
      - aggression is highly stereotypic and species-specific
      - the displays are energy costly, make the male vulnerable, and detract time from feeding or parenting
      - Northern Elephant Seals- Males stake out land territory through fighting before females arrives to give birth
    - - optimal foraging theory- feeding choices are done to maximise energetic gain with minimal cost
      - the primary benefits to forage are nutrition and the cost is energy, time and predation
      - some foods are essential for diet and some are medicinal (Chimpanzees eat pith of plant to reduce parasites)
- - - - Flash behaviour to startle the predator providing time to escape
      - warning colours
      - distracting patterns can cause a predator to target the rear end so can more easily escape
      - attention grabbing actions can be used to distract from the nest
      - play dead since won't eat to decaying fish
      - alarm signals let predator know it has been detected, so lost element of surprise
    - - coevolution of flowers and pollinators
      - UV honeyguides for insects to direct towards nectar
  - - - signals to increase distance (branch shaking)
      - signals to maintain home range (chorus of howler monkeys)
      - signals to reduce distance (to keep group members in touch)(lost call of Cebus monkey)
      - signals to maintain proximity (during social grooming)
    - - Species
        
        avoid infertile mating between closely related species
        
        like courtship songs of 3 Drosphila species
      - Deme
        
        different white sparrow populations have different songs and they give different reactions
      - Neighbour
        
        many animals tend to stay in one area, so tend to contact same individuals repeatedly since waste of time and energy to respond intensely
        
        like European robins are less likely to be aggressive to neighbours
        
        Like banner-tailed kangeroo are more aggressive with seismic drumming to strangers
      - Kin
        
        differential responses to close relative
        
        like house mice
      - Individual
        
        maintain social associations
        
        like bottlenose dolphins with complex signature whistles and individual identifiers
    - - alerts group to danger
      - like vervet monkeys with different alarms to predators
    - - group living means increased foraging efficiency
      - signals to aid in exploitation and acquisition
      - many colonies act as information centres (African wild dogs)
    - - BEgging and offering of food between parent-offspring
      - like herring gull chich with red spot to regurgitate
  - - - limited resources
      - Heterogenus environment
      - patchy resources
      - aggregation of individuals
    - - Blue tits
        
        only 1% agonistic contests involve physical fights
        
        females abandon food when male arrives (dom-sub relationships)
        
        2 birds of same sex led to ritualised displays to provide info on whether to fight or flee
      - Grey seals
        
        breeding colony compete for female access
        
        less than 4% of male-male are fights
      - resolution is common due to high risk of fights so selection favours this mechanism
    - - maintaining social space (territory) by signalling
      - appeasemtn and submission
      - prefight displays to display dominance
    - - fights are last resort and often ritualised
      - evenly matched competition where one persists or escalates is because it has more to gain from winning (motivated by something)
      - the resource value determines how much they are willing to fight and the owner has an advantage since it knows the worth
    - - observing encounters may affect the observers' behaviour in subsequent encounters
      - like Siamese fighting fish