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Biology B2, Health and disease, Organisms defence against pathogens,…

- - - - Virus
        
        1/100 of the size of a bacterium, Replicate inside of cells it hijacks and eventually destroys
      - Single Eukaryotic cells
    - - Fungi
        
        Spread through spores, single celled or make up a thread like structure called hyphae that can penetrate human skin or plants
      - 1/100 of the size of a human cell, they rapidly reproduce and release toxins that damage an organisms cells.
- - - - Pathogens like bacteria release toxins which cause harm to the body. Lymphocytes produce antitoxins
- - - - Incorrect or misleading information about a vaccine is dangerous as if people decide not to get it based on this information, the population could be put at risk.
- - - - Hygeine
        
        Sterilizing wounds
        
        Killing pathogens stopping them from entering the blood
        
        Vaccination
        
        Vaccines can prevent people and animals against a disease stop them from spreading it.
        
        Contraception
        
        Sexually transmitted infections can prevented by the use of contraceptives like condoms.
        
        Washing hands and wearing a face covering
      - Access to clean drinking water, removal of sewages prevent water born pathogens like cholera from spreading.
- - - - Keep infected plants away from healthy ones
        
        Use of healthy seeds
        
        Destruction of infected plants
        
        Polyculture: Growing different plants in the same space to isolate infected plants.
- - - - Use a sterilized Petri dish and growth medium.
        
        Use sterilized tools (inoculating loop in Bunsen)
        
        Tap on the petri dish to stop contaminated air getting in.
        
        Store upside down to avoid condensation falling onto the agar.
- - - - Leave the microorganisms in a warm place to multiply (no higher than 25c in schools)
        
        Practical 2:
        Effect of antibiotics on Bacteria
        
        Place paper discs soaked in the different antibiotics and concentrations onto an agar plate with bacteria spread evenly.
        
        Use a control. The antibiotics will diffuse into the agar allowing you to see the effectiveness on the bacterial you are testing by observing the zone cleared of bacteria.
- - - - The white blood cells create antibodies against it and are extracted. Because there are lots of different cells making antibodies against different things, you need to find the right one and isolate it.
        
        The correct white blood cell is fused with a lab tumor cell giving it the ability to produce identical copies rapidly when placed in a culture medium. The result is endless monoclonal antibodies.
- - - - The pathogens with antibodies attach move along the strip to the test section where pathogen carrying the dye attach to antibodies stuck down of the test section.
        
        Because the pathogen carrying the dye has stopped, you can see a line of dye.
        
        Treating Cancers
        
        Monoclonal antibodies can be made to bind antigens only present on cancerous cells. By attaching some kind of marker like a dye of fluorescent material, you can find cancerous areas.
        
        They can also: deliver targeted drugs, trigger an immune response like destruction of particular cancerous cells.
- - - - Blood vessels in your heart or places in your body can get clogged LDL Cholesterol. Little fat deposits build up over time then harden to become atheroma's.
        
        Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) is when these atheroma's build up in the heart.
      - Treatment
        
        Lifestyle
        
        Medication
        
        Statins reduce the cholesterol level in the blood,
        Anticoagulants reduce ability to clott,
        Antihypertensives reduce blood pressure
        
        Surgery
        
        Stents to enlarge the blood vessels from within; Coronary Bypass surgery uses healthy vessel to bypass the blockage;
        Heart surgery to replace the heart.
        
        Reducing stress, eating healthily, quitting smoking, exercising regularly
    - - With 2 sickle cell genes, the effect of the sickle cell mutation in intensified. They cant carry as much oxygen and they are sticky resulting in extremally painful blood clots for those suffering from it.
- - - - Environmental
        
        Your environment can influence lifestyle choices by for example, easy access to junk foods. Or it can be more direct like involuntary inhalation of cigarette smoke.
        
        Lifestyle
        
        Factors like diet and exercise can effect your likely hood of non-communicable disease because they affect factors like blood pressure, sugar levels and cholesterol.
  - - - Because of the nicotine increasing blood pressure
        
        Risk factors for cancer
        
        Carcinogenic chemicals create mutations in the DNA that could result in cancer.
        
        Risk factors for lung disease
        
        Chronic bronchitis causes permanent damage and breathing problems
        
        Risks of alcohol and smoking
        
        1 more item...
- - - - These trial can be blind (the patient does not know if they have a placebo but the doctor does); double blind ( Neither the patient nor the doctor know) or and open label (both know if its a placebo or not.
- - - - Bodily fluids
        
        Water and air
        
        Surfaces
        
        By touching contaminated surfaces or objects with the cause of the disease on it
        
        Water: By bathing or drinking dirty water, Air: By breathing in
        
        By one or more people using the same needle, sexual intercourse and breast feeding
      - By eating food containing pathogens like salmonella
- - - - Testing with antimicrobial compounds
        
        Genome sequencing
        
        Isolation and re- infection
        
        Recognizing symptoms
        
        By observing the symptoms displayed by a plant or animal, you can figure out what kind of disease is the subject affected by.
        
        Different diseases can have very similar symptoms so it is usually not enough just looking at the symptoms. You need to do some lab tests to identify the disease and the pathogen causing it.
        
        By Isolating the a suspected microorganism affecting a plant to be grown in a lab and then used to re-infect a healthy plant of the same species.
        
        By analyzing genetic material from a pathogen you can create sections of DNA that are complimentary to the pathogens DNA. The DNA strands will bind with the pathogen and cause it to fluoresce and be identified.
        
        After growing the pathogen in a culture using a growth medium you can test it in different environments and with different antimicrobial compounds to see what is effective at killing it.
      - Looking at the appearance of a pathogen to help identify it. By staining the pathogen helps to identify it e.g. some microorganisms absorb some dyes but not others.