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U40, Rubin, O’Malley (1985) - Coggle Diagram

- - - - “all learners use LLS (either consciously or unconsciously) when processing new information (understand, learn, remember) & performing tasks (use) in the language classroom”
        
        The language classroom is like a problem-solving environment in which language learners are likely to face new input and difficult tasks given by their instructors, so students will always attempt to find the quickest or easiest way to do what is required
  - - - Certain cultures use special forms of memorization which
        seem to be more prevalent than other cultures
    - - Negative attitudes & beliefs often causing poor strategy use or lack of strategies.
    - - Females use greater overall strategies than males in general although these sometimes surpassed females in the use of a particular strategy
    - - The nature of the tasks help determine the strategies naturally employed to carry them out
    - - More motivated students tend to use more strategies than less motivated ones. Also, the particular reason for studying (academic orientation), is important
    - - Students of different ages/stages of L2 learning use different strategies, some being employed more by older or by younger
    - - Often determines the choice of L2 learning strategies
        
        Analytic-style students prefer strategies such as contrastive analysis, rule-learning, and separating words and phrases
        
        Global students tend to use strategies to find meaning (guessing, scanning, predicting) and to converse without knowing all the words (paraphrasing, gesturing)
    - - Use significantly different learning strategies
  - - - Psychological functions (O’Malley, 1985)
        
        Metacognitive: planning, monitoring, evaluation...
        
        Cognitive: summarising, note-taking, translation, grouping, repetition, deduction, imagery...
      - Separate language skills (Cohen, 1990)
        
        (listening, speaking, reading, writing)
      - Successful language learners (Rubin, 1975)
        
        The good language learner is...
      - Different styles or types of learners (Ellis, 1985)
        
        Visual, auditory, kinesthetic & tactic learners
      - Linguistically based systems (Tarone, 1983)
  - - - Indirect
        
        indirectly contribute to the learning process
        
        Affective
        
        Lowering your anxiety
        
        Encouraging/motivating yourself
        
        Social
        
        Asking questions/to correct
        
        Cooperating with others
        
        Asking the teacher how...
        
        Metacognitive
        
        Planning the learning
        
        Self-monitoring & self-evaluation (evaluating your learning)
      - Direct
        
        directly contribute to the learning process
        
        Cognitive
        
        Practice/repetition
        
        Analysing, reasoning, structuring
        
        Memory
        
        Creating mental maps/links
        
        Using images & sounds
        
        Reviewing
        
        Compensation
        
        Informed guessing
        
        Skipping unknown words & concentrating on the overall meaning of a text
      - 2 main classes/categories, subdivided into 6 groups
      - (1990)
- - - - Most useful in the early stages of second language learning where Communicative competence can be present with just Strategic & Sociolinguistic competence
        
        The result of an initial failure to implement a production plan. Language use, therefore, is characterized by both production & reception strategies, which operate when the learner utilizes available resources easily and subconsciously
  - - - Grammatical /Linguistic competence
        
        Having control over the purely linguistic aspects of the language code itself, verbal and non-verbal. It involves for students to match sound & meaning; to form words & sentences using vocabulary; to use language through spelling & pronunciation; and to handle semantics
        
        Morphology
        
        Phonology
        
        Syntax
        
        Lexis
        
        Orthography
        
        Semantics
        
        knowledge of Lexical items and of rules of Morphology, Syntax, sentence-grammar Semantics & Phonology
      - Discourse competence
        
        The ways in which individual sentences connect together to form a communicative message. How to combine grammatical forms & meanings to achieve a unified spoken/written text in different genres. The unity of a text is achieved through cohesion in form & coherence in meaning
        
        Cohesion & Coherence
    - - Strategic competence
        
        The verbal & nonverbal Communication Strategies that may be called into action to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to performance variables or due to insufficient competence & enhance effectiveness to compensate for deficiencies in the other components of Communicative competence: the type of knowledge which we need to sustain communication with sb
        
        Achieved by: paraphrase, circumlocution, repetition, hesistation, avoidance, guessing as
        well as shifts in register and style
        
        Strategic Competence performs assessment, planning & execution functions in determining the most effective means of achieving a communicative goal
      - Sociolinguistic competence
        
        The knowledge which the learner has to acquire of the sociocultural rules of language (use). It requires an understanding of the social context in which language is used: the roles of the participants, the information they share, and the function of the interaction.
        
        Appropiateness
        
        The extent to which an utterance is proper/suitable for a particular audience & a particular purpose in a given sociolinguistic context
  - - - Fillers
        
        To fill pauses & to gain time to think in order to keep the
        communication channel open and maintain discourse at time of difficulty
        
        "Well, actually, err"
      - Stalling ~
      - Repetition (self & other)
        
        Repeating a word or a string of words immediately after they were said
    - - Topic avoidance
        
        Tries not to talk about concepts/topics for which the L2 item or structure is not known
      - Message abandonment
        
        Begins to talk about a concept but is
        unable to continue and stops in mid-utterance
    - - Approximation
        
        Uses a single word or structure in the L2 which the learner knows is not correct, but which shares enough semantic features with the desired item to satisfy the speaker
        
        "that fish" instead of "carp/tuna/cod"
      - Achievement ~
      - Circumlocution
        
        Describes the characteristics or elements of the
        objects or action instead of using the appropriate L2 word
        
        "the thing you open bottles with"
        instead of "corkscrew"
      - Word coinage
        
        Makes up a new word in order to communicate the desired concept
        
        "vegetarianist"
      - Literal translation
        
        Translates word for word from the native language
        
        "I have eight years old"
      - Code switching
        
        Uses the L1 term without bothering to translate
      - Appeal for assistance
        
        Asks for the correct form
        
        "What is it called?"
      - Mime
        
        Uses non-verbal strategies in place of a lexical item or action
        
        Non-linguistic means
      - Instead of using the appropriate word:
    - - Self-initiated repair
        
        Tries to correct inappropriate/inadequate information in one’s own speech
        
        "Well, I mean, that is..."
      - Self-rephrasing
        
        Repeats the slightly modified version of a word or phrase because of uncertainty about its correctness
      - Self-regulation
    - - Appeal for help
        
        Asks for aid from the interlocutor either
        directly (what do you call?) or
        indirectly (Idon’t know how to say this)
      - Meaning negotiation
        
        Expressions of Non-understanding
        
        Verbal (Sorry, I’m not sure I understand) or
        Non-verbal (raised eyebrows)
        
        Interpretive summary
        
        (So what you are saying is this?)
        
        Comprehension check
        
        the interlocutor can follow you (Am I making sense?),
        
        what you said was correct grammatically (I said that?),
        
        the interlocutor can hear you (Are you listening to me?)
        
        Reponses
        
        Mis-understanding requests
        
        Repetition request (Can you say that again?)
        
        Clarification request (What do you mean by...?)
        
        Confirmation request (Did you say...?)
- - - - A need for animals & humans to communicate so as to (1) carry out basic activities of everyday life
        & (2) express their feelings/attitudes. However, even the most primitive cultures had a constant need to express their feelings and ideas by other means than guttural sounds & body movements as animals did. Our constant preoccupation was how to turn thoughts into words.
        
        The physiological & genetic evolution of our vocal tract was essential in the emergence of language, which were accompanied by natural sounds and body language
    - - Our auditory-vocal channel
        
        Exclusive to humans
      - Arbitrariness
        
        No intrinsic/logical connection btw sound forms & what they refer to (language & reality)
      - Traditional transmission
        
        Language is handed down from one generation to the next by a process of teaching & learning
      - Productivity
        
        Infinite number of possible new messages to be expressed, including inventing & telling lies
      - Displacement
        
        Talk about events remote in space or time
      - Duality of patterning
        
        Meaningful messages are made up of distinct smaller meaningful units (words/utterances) which in turn are made up of distinct smaller meaningful units (morphemes/phonemes)
      - Interchangeablity of messages
        
        Possibility to reproduce messages to say anything in any context: anything one can hear, one can say. This allows for the roles of speaker & listener alternating via turn-taking
  - - - Competence
        
        Knowledge of an idealized/abstract, internalized/ underlying "system of rules". One’s implicit or explicit knowledge of the language system
        
        Linguistic knowledge is separated from sociocultural features
      - Performance
        
        The actual individual production & comprehension of utterances in specific instances of language use (actual communication situations) and the rules of language use. It did not properly reflect the underlying knowledge (competence), because of its many imperfections at the level of errors & hesitations
      - theory of transformational generative grammar (1960s)
      - Language
        
        A finite system of rules which allows to produce an infinite number/set of grammatically correct sentences. Thus, learners do not acquire an endless list of rules, but a limited set of rules with which they can form an unlimited number of sentences
      - a turning point in the development of subsequent theories on language learning
    - - On communicative competence (1972)
      - Communicative Competence
        
        The underlying knowledge a speaker has of the rules of grammar & their use in socially appropriate circumstances. It included not only grammatical competence, but also sociolinguistic competence, which connects language & culture/society, necessary to use & understand linguistic forms (language use in social contexts)
        
        The underlying knowledge a speaker has of the rules of grammar & their use in socially appropriate circumstances
        
        He states that "native speakers knowledge is larger than just grammatical competence" & distinguishes 4 aspects of competence
        
        Systematic potential
        
        Native speakers have a system for producing potentially infinite grammatically correct language
        
        Appropiacy
        
        Native speakers know what is appropiate in a given situation/context in which language is used, based on things like the setting, participants, purpose, channel & topic
        
        Occurrence
        
        Native speakers know how often something is said in language & act accordingly
        
        Feasibility
        
        Native speakers know whether something is possible or not in the language, even if there is not a grammar rule to ban it
      - Extends Chomsky's notion of competence & includes not only grammatical, but also sociolinguistic competence
    - - Communicative Competence
        
        Knowing a language is not only knowing its grammar but also knowing how to use it, with whom, and in what situations. Therefore: (1) the underlying knowledge of the system and (2) the skills needed for communicating (e.g. knowledge of vocabulary and skill in using the sociolinguistic conventions for a given language)
        
        Knowledge
        
        what one knows, consciously or not, about the language and about communicative language use
        
        Skills
        
        how well one can perform this knowledge in actual communication
        
        They use CC to refer to the relationship/interaction btw Grammatical competence (knowledge of the rules of grammar) & Sociolinguistic competence (knowledge of the rules of language use)
      - (1980)
      - Actual communication
        
        The realization/manifestation of such knowledge & skills (which make up competence) in actual communication under limiting psychological & environmental conditions (memory & perceptual constraints, fatigue, nervousness, distractions, etc.). It shows the reality that CC is only indirectly reflected in communication
        
        Language use
- - - - they contribute indirectly to learning since they do no lead directly to the obtaining, storing, retrieving, and using of language
  - - - used by speakers when faced with some difficulty due to breakdowns in communication or when confronted with misunderstanding by a co-speaker
  - - - Using previous knowledge to help solve new problems: the steps or techniques used in learning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation or synthesis of materials
        
        Guessing
        
        Deductive reasoning
        
        Clarification
        
        Practice
        
        Monitoring
        
        Memorization
      - Direct
    - - Used to improve organization of learning time, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation: used to oversee, regulate or self-direct language learning
      - Indirect