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Contemporary Urban Environments - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Prerequisites include the presence of cultural production.
        Heritage quarters focus on the history of the area, and small scale industries, such as the Birmingham Jewellery quarter.
    - - British Crime Survey establsihed that crime is associated with certain types of built environment.
        Fortress developments such as the Hidden Hill in LA are used to guard the elitist space. This odes not allow for the interference of people unlike them, hoping for this o be the preventative of crime.
      - In South Africa, rates of crime, particularly violent crime, ar high which has led to a national anxiety about becoming a victim.
        Government has been criticised for doing little to stop crime and this has caused a growing number of mc to live in gated communities.
        The anxiety was brought into global spotlight when Oscar Pistorius fatally shot his girlfriend, as he said he had mistaken her for an intruder of his home, in a gated community.
    - - Detroit Links to CP
        Migratoin out of the city to suburbs is made possible by higher incomes.
    - - Combination of these strategies and stricter planning controls placed on out of town developments means that many large cities have attracted shoppers and visitors back to the city centre.
        The worry around the decline of CBDs however remains.
- - - - Thicker in anticyclonic (high-pressure) winds are too weak to move them away.
      - During Industrial Revolution, with days of higher industrialisation, experiencing more fog due to more concentration fo condensation nuclei.
    - - Updraughts of hot humid air can rise even higher in the atmosphere and more quickly.
      - More intense heating means more violent thunderstorms.
    - - Urban rivers are primarily the exit for water transferred through the drainage basin, but also important stores.
        
        Management of river channels throguh dredging, embarking, channelisation increases storage capacity.
      - Reservoirs, lakes, ponds and swimming pools are permanent stores but vulnerable to evaporation.
        
        Depression storage such as surface puddles are temporary.
        
        Interception storage is reduced owing to the replacement of vegetation by impermeable structures.
        
        Soil moisture storage varies according to ground conditions.
      - Urban hydrographs are flashy, showing a rapid discharge over a short period of time
        
        More water movement as surface runoff, discharge rises quickly, peaking quickly.
        
        The need to build on floodplains to meet increased housing demand increases the threat of flooding.
      - Drainage Management
        Rapid removal of surface water is essential - simple transfers of water to the nearest river necessitates management if its capacity is not to be overwhelmed.
        
        Hard Engineering
        
        River straightening: involves cutting throguh meanders, increasing speed of flow, which may increase flood risk further downstream.
        
        Diversion spillways: by-pass the main channel, can be emergency use only when high flow levels threaten settlements.
        
        River channelisation: involves lining straightened channels with concrete, which reduces frictio, improving the rate of flow, reducing build up of silt.
        
        Soft Engineering
        
        Afforestation: increase interception and reduce throughflow and surface run off
        
        Riverbank conservation: planting bushes and trees reduces lateral erosion
        
        Floodplain zoning: restricts different land uses to certain locations on the floodplain
        
        Sustainable Drainage Systems
        Represent the ultimate replication fo natural drainage systems within any built environment, holding back and slowing surface runoff from any development and Laos natural processes.
        
        Swales are wide, shallow drainage channels
        
        Permeable road and pavement surfaces (porous rock)
        
        Infiltration trenches (gravel filled drains)
        
        Detention basins ( excavated basins hold water)
        
        Green roofs
        
        They slow down surface water runoff, reduce the risk of flooding, prevent water pollution, provide valuable habitats.
  - - - Legislation
        Many countries set strict limits on emissions
        
        Clean Air Acts across HDEs have been hugely influential.
        
        In the UK, air quality targets set and monitored by DEFRA.
      - Vehicle Restrictions
        Pedestrianisation of city centres and Park and Ride schemes reduce the number of vehicles in urban areas.
        
        Congestion Charge in London
      - Technical Innovations
        Industrial pollution controls have forced factories to reduce gas and particulate emissions.
        Electric and hybrid vehicles.
- - - - Biodegradable
        
        Recyclable
        
        Inert
        
        Electrical
        
        Toxic
        
        Composite
  - - - Mainly from HDEs to LDEs apart from
        
        Sellafield in Cumbria, importing used nuclear fuel rods globally to extract uranium and plutonium.
      - Critics argue that LDEs are exploited through under regulation.
        
        Although most waste is produced in the west, the health impacts are felt by the nations who do not produce mcuh waste themselves.
        
        Do not have safe processes or facilities, hazardous waste is not properly disposed or treated.
    - - EU and UK government legislation relating to submarine dumping, landfill, incineration and recycling are strict
        
        In the UK, dumping of sewage sludge has been prohibited since 1998.
      - Incineration and recycling are primary disposals of MSW, but burial in landfill remains common.
        
        They are tightly protected and an engineering facility in the UK, compacted by machines before covered in top soil.
  - - - However, it attracts vermin, leads to anaerobic decay if organic, subsidence, produces methane, produce leachates, generates lorry traffic, unpleasant smell.
    - - However, particulate emissions require managing, chimney emissions can be toxic if not managed, carbon dioxide emissions, not all MSW is combustible.
    - - However, expensive, safe operation to avoid hazardous leakage, public separation is prone to error, electrical waste requires careful dismantling due to toxic components.
- - - - More recently, urban areas are undergoing urban resurgence.
- - - - The most interconnected cities are given alpha city status, such as New York and London
  - - - Most manufacturing of goods takes place in EMEs and LDEs.
        
        Shanghai- with the creation of several more open cities along the Yangtze River, there is a line of production centres west of Shanghai.
        
        They support the export-orientated economy as well as fast becoming export centres in their own right.
      - Top down decision making is often made by TNCs whose headquarters are frequently located in world cities.
    - - Globalisation has reinforced the strogn connections between world cities and the rest of the world.
        
        This can be negative however as seen in the global recession of 2007.
        
        Shanghai- favourable terms offered to overseas companies, it attracts a disproportionate amount of overseas investment
        
        The effect of businesses is exaggerated as risks are perceived to be less if there are already foreign companies in an area. The growth of Shanghai has been at the expense of some smaller cities.
      - The world’s largest TNCs locate in world cities and exploit the economic knock-on effects.
    - - Leaders influence economic links between countries such as the Mayor of London and New York.
        
        In 1984, Shanghai was set up by the Chinese government as an open city. This established economic and technological development zones attracting huge inward investment.
        
        In 1990, Pudong New Zone is now how to China’s financial and commercial centre, which was previously impoverished swampy farmland.
      - Global promotion, with the right policies to support economic growth
      - Important to resolve transport and crime issues, addressing crime or promoting enterprise and education.
    - - Attract large volume of migrant workers
        
        Shanghai has more than 100k graduates per year from 60 HE institutions; over 1/4 of population is college educated plus overseas workers.
      - Many are unqualified, but flows of capital attract the most wealthy and qualified.
      - Take advantage of the globalised flows of information and communication.
    - - Some LDEs however struggle where urbanisation is most rapid due to underinvestment in infrastructure, and also reflect lacks of skilled workers and entrepreneurs.;
      - Technology is a counterforce of urbanisation
      - Agglomeration economies
        More educated workers are drawn into the larger cities
        
        Densely populated areas have reduced cost for moving goods, pooled labour and flowing ideas.
        
        Particularly succeed under effective governance strategies, opposed to fragmentation of administration.
- - - - This is where deindustrialisation was so adversely felt
        
        Between 1951-1981, two million jobs lost in inner-city areas alone.
      - Left areas of socio-economic, and environmental problems
      - Protectionism did not encourage UK manufacturing industries to become more efficient.
      - Strength of trade unions against regulation of industrial practices
        
        Introduction of piece rates.
  - - - Unemployment remains a problem in HDEs
      - Managerial roles have been limited, whilst ‘back office jobs are low-skilled, low paid and likely to be part-time/temporary.
      - New services are drawn to the largest cities (top of urban hierarchy)du to multinationals needing access to national and international labour markets.
      - Consumer services are more evenly distributed throguh the urban hierarchy, increasingly focused on the suburban fringe to be near more affluent populations.
        
        Research and development facilities in particular seek pools of highly qualified labour such as urban fringe locations near university.
- - - - Influx of rich immigrants to London (Middle East and former Soviet Union) in Mayfair and Knightsbridge means the price of housing exceeds wealthy British individuals.
  - - - 7 dimensions of deprivation are:
        
        Income
        
        Employment
        
        Health deprivation and Disability
        
        Education, skills, and training
        
        Crime
        
        Barriers to Housing and Services
        
        Living Environment.
      - 2010 IMD found 98% of the most deprived areas were in cities.
      - Measure of relative deprivation (not everyone in a deprived area is deprived) not affluence.
    - - Inequality can cause lack of social cohesion and civil unrest.
      - Poor inner cities and affluent suburbs appear to be changing in some circumstances, especially with the emergence of inner-city regeneration.
      - Social Segregation on Ethnicity
        Different communities become isolated by maintaining their own language and beliefs with limited interactions with previous insiders.
    - - Regionally
        
        Enforcing a living wage (London over 10,000 families out of poverty since 2005).
        
        Provision of schools
        
        Supporting low-skilled workers wanting to develop
        
        Access to affordable housing.
        
        Greater provision of public transport.
      - Policy of interculturalism such as anti-racism, employment rights and opportunities to combat discrimination.
- - - - Progress is slower in LDEs and EMEs, but organisations such as the UN and World Bank with water quality and supply issues
        
        Treatment plans, dam and reservoir schemes, and aquifer identification and exploitation.
  - - - Their use addresses the pressing need for more houses, improves the urban environment, reduces urban sprawl, reduces car use from commuting.