Narrators
Gender
Cautionary tales
Walton uses the intertextual reference to 'The Rime of the Ancient Mariner' by Coleridge when he journeys into the frozen wastes of the Arctic. He writes "I shall kill no albatross". 'The Rime of the Ancient Mariner' tells of the misfortunes of a seaman who shoots an albatross, which spells disaster for his ship and fellow sailors. The seaman, who is the ancient mariner of the title, then roams the world retelling the tale of his cursed journey. The Mariner faces an inner struggle over the crime he has committed, and must understand his actions and perform his penance. This may be a link to Victor's experiences. The poem offers a haunting portrayal of the guilt and loneliness that Shelley also captures through the experiences of her characters.
Like Victor, the ancient mariner defies God. In shooting the albatross he disturbs the natural order: his world, like Victor's, is transformed into a nightmare vision of an alien universe, a meaningless and terrifying wasteland, a world without God. Even after the mariner is forgiven, we are left with the suspicion that this vision of the world may have been prompted by his insight into the truth of the human condition. The monster's experiences may offer a similar insight into a godless world: an irrational, terrifying world managed only by human institutions which are corrupt and individuals who are irresponsible and cruel. Furthermore, like both Victor and the monster, the mariner is an alienated individual. Once he shoots the albatross, he is no longer at peace with himself, and he is shunned by the wider community. Even after he is forgiven, although he becomes aware of the joys of family and community life, he is forced to do penance which keeps him still a solitary, marginal figure, eternally wandering the world.
Doppelganger in Rime of the Ancient Mariner - believed to have influenced the structure and themes of Frankenstein as it is also a cautionary tales about the dangers of seeking forbidden knowledge - it is referenced throughout the novel and is also set in a polar region where a singular man's actions impact himself and others
Doppelganger - German term meaning 'double-goer', an apparition or double of a living person - common trope of 19th century Gothic literature - double (an alternative version of the individual) - complement (version of individual that possess different qualities and therefore completes the personality) - opposite (person that possesses all the qualities that the individual lacks and most abhors) - dualism is a term which encompasses the doppelganger but also includes a wider range of opposites
Moira, unlike Offred, was involved in activism and glimpsed the future. Moira saw her perceptions validated, and the new law gave her purpose, solidifying her resolve to resist the new order. While Offred and others simply let the changes happen, Moira was invigorated by the opportunity to fight back. Moira can be seen as a opposite doppleganger to Offred, but a double to Ofglen. She too is a rebel in disguise, a member of the Mayday Resistance movement and a whisperer of irreverent comments at the Prayvaganza.
Narrator reliability
In Frankenstein, the creature talks in large fragments of speech to Victor, who then repeats this “word for word” to Walton, and it is questionable as to how accurate this information is. It is possible that Victor has altered the creature’s words to make him seem like some sort of victim or he simply misworded some of the things the creature said
In chapter 11, the creature then starts his narration told by victor, which is then told by Walton in his letters to his sister. The creature's narrative is passed down through two people which effects the reliability, some key events may have been missed out, his words could have been altered to make him seem like a victim when maybe in reality he may not have been. As his narrative is only told by victor, when Walton meets the creature his judgment is heavily influenced by what victor has told him.
The Historical notes in The Handmaid’s Tale contribute to the unreliability of the narrator as the tapes used were ‘arranged in no particular order’, and with us only being told this at the end of the novel, the story is entirely transformed by those who rearranged them in ‘the order in which they appeared to go’ out of Offred’s control, perhaps a broader, metaphorical link to how the Creature in Frankenstein was physically constructed with multiple parts (those being purposefully selected by Victor).
Often, Offred is notably speculating about things that could have happened, such as the different versions of the time spent with Nick, that she ‘made it up’ and how ‘it didn’t happen that way,’ for her to then correct herself, proving that what we would assume are clear events as they are coming directly from Offred, are shadowed with uncertainty.
In Frankenstein, in chapter 11, the creature starts his narration through Victor, the protagonist, which is then told through Walton in his letters to his sister. The creature's narrative is told through two people's accounts which destabilises the reliability and accuracy of his tale. This could mean that the creatures accounts of waking up in the cold “and half-frightened" and alone in Victor's apartment including the events following this, may not be how the creature originally explained them to Victor. Due to the fact that the creature's story is narrated by Victor to Walton, when he meets the creature, he has already made a judgment about him, simply based on the image Victor has created.
Similarly, in The Handmaids Tale, the protagonist, Offred, as the narrator is unreliable. As mentioned previously, the historical notes contribute to the unreliability, the tapes being ‘arranged in no particular order’ potentially transforms the story entirely, especially since this only comes into light at the end of the novel. Those who rearranged them in ‘the order in which they appear’ means that it could differ completely from the initial, first-hand account. This could essentially be a link to Shelley’s Frankenstein through how the creature is physically constructed by Victor with multiple parts, these parts being handpicked, which is similar to how the tapes were hand selected and rearranged by the academics. Often, Offred is notably speculating about things that could have happened, such as the different versions of her accounts with Nick, that she ‘made it up’ and how it ‘didn’t happen that way,’ for her to correct herself, it further proves that we as readers cannot rely on what Offred says and what we would assume to be clear events, are shadowed with uncertainty.
The narrators within both The Handmaid’s Tale and Frankenstein are both presented as unreliable in vastly different ways, with Offred admitting her inability to recall things correctly and the stories in Frankenstein being passed through so many characters the truth is bound to have been shifted and alternated until it eventually is expressed through an epistolary form in Waltons letters. They are both very unreliable yet in different ways that link to the context of their situations, as Offred has been oppressed and so she must recall everything in a short amount of time, and the characters in Frankenstein having a lack of communication due to the time period and the lack of communication due to the range of locations and constantly fluctuating severity of events that make communication hard to grasp.
The presence of the male professors' input underpins Offred's narrative. Similarly, this notion is portrayed by the unresponsive, yet obligated, Mrs Saville who is the receiver of Walton's letters, and in turn Frankenstein and the creature's narrative, due to the mise-en-abyme structure. Male voices dominate the narrative in 'Frankenstein', and whilst Offred is given some agency in that sense that she has been able to tell her story
Atwood destabilises the reliability of Offred’s account; ‘it is a story I'm telling and then I have control over the ending,’ showing her story is reconstructions of events that has happened throughout her life, whilst being aware of it. The Historical Notes say "there is a certain reflective quality about the narrative" which shows Offred is retelling her story following her escape.
Offred's story is put together by men, so she doesn't even have control over her own tale. The historical notes paratext says "Up to Professor Wade and myself to arrange the blocks of speech".
The Historical Notes further sneer at Offred and dismiss her experience in Gilead. The Professors only care about the facts and wish Offred "had the instincts of a reporter or a spy". Shows Professor Pieixoto's lack of empathy towards Offred's situation, downplaying of women's suffering, demonstrates that society has not learnt and continues to remain deeply sexist, Offred does have these instincts but chooses to report on private matters, providing a counter-discourse which challenges Gilead’s patriarchal narrative, Professor misses the point as Offred had to be extremely careful about researching or spying because her life was at risk. Offred shared a typical feminine approach to narrative telling, focusing on emotions and relationships, rather than facts and evidence that are considered more masculine. This links to Helene Cicoux's notion of 'L'ecriture Feminine', which is arguable a form of female empowerment as Offred is adopting a more feminine form, however the Historical Notes suggest her ability to tell the story has been arranged by male professors. Link to Canterbury Tales.
Atwood arguably criticises the patriarchy further in her choice of title relating to 'The Canterbury Tales' by Geoffrey Chaucer in the late 1300s which told the tales of 24 different pilgrims, each defined and named solely by their function, just like in Gilead. It may be said that Atwood is reinserting the female voice into the male-dominated literary canon by referencing one of the first great works of literature, however the Historical Notes paratext functions as a way of discrediting Offred's feminine narrative by saying two male professors named Offred's story as a sneer at her situation. This section of historiographical metafiction arguably links to Percy Shelley's preface to 'Frankenstein'. Although Percy's preface is far less innuendo-filled and sexist than the male professors, it may still be considered a male interference and voice being allowed to alter a woman's literary work. This is because it functions as a way to allow certain ideas about the monster's occurence to be dictated by a male, and thus a male voice underpins all aspects of the narrative.
Shelley uses a framing device (the reason for the telling of the main narrative) and epistolary narration (when a story is told through letters). Walton's narrative provides the framing device, The monster has the embedded narrative, and the protagonist Victor is our main narrator - all of which are male. Woman as presented passive, disposable and serving a utilitarian function. Female characters like Safie, Elizabeth, Justine, Margaret and Agatha provide nothing more but a channel of action for the male characters in the novel. Justine becomes an inactive, docile victim of circumstance - "I have no power of explaining it". Agatha’s (young cottager’s daughter) purpose, as a kind and gentle female, is to exhibit and embody all virtue and sensitivity. She teaches the narrator healthy human relationships and love by listening "with respect". Contrast to Safie and Moira in THT.