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Primate - Coggle Diagram

- - - - physical and political accessibility of sites
      - interests of researchers and funding
      - bone preservation potential
      - sedimentation change and erosion
  - - - stratigraphy- relationships of layers to on eanother
      - establishing ages by comparison to materials found above
    - - measures half lives of isotopes
      - radio-carbon and potassium-argon dating
  - - - found in NA, Asia and Europe
      - had generalised teeth, grasping hands and feet with 1 nail
      - they are considered a primate because of eyes at side of head, no post-orbital bar
    - - the first true primate
      - they had grasping hands and feet, nails, forward facing eyes, post-orbital bar, relatively large brains
      - 2 groups Adapids (strepsirrhine ancestor) and o=Omomyids (haplorrhine ancestor)
- - - - all have post orbital bar, some also have postorbital closure
      - have trichromatic colour vision (may be for food, mate-choice or predation)
      - large energy needed for this so other sensory systems are reduced (snouts), evolutionary tradeoff
- - - - grasping hands with nails and stereoscopic vison was needed for life in trees
      - not many tree-living species don't have these traits
    - - grasp prey in branches so need depth perception adn had eye coordination
    - - evolution linked to rise and spread of flowering plants
      - so primates could exploit plant parts in fine branches
  - - - comparitive- how traits vary
      - observational- how traits are used in natural/semi-natural conditions
      - experimental
        
        manipulate variables to see how it affects survival and reproduction
        
        adaptive behaviours- change environment to see if it triggers predicted behaviour
        
        selection experiments- change environment and observe evolution of traits
  - - - measured and classified habitats (habitat, when the are awake, diet)
      - conclusion was that it supported nocturnal visual predation hypothesis (nocturnal=carnivorous)
    - - hypothesis was that humans subconsciously adjust prosocial behaviour in presence of audience to maintain reputation
      - prediction of low-level social cues trigger prosocial behaviour
      - test involved contribution to honesty box under social cues
    - - functions for balance on trees
      - predict smaller tail means hanging on lower branches
      - arboreal species have longer tail than expected
    - - club like structure adapted for male-male competition
      - observation of great ape skeleton- they are unable to protect second and third digit
      - behavioural- clenched when angry
      - experiment- found no difference between fist and slap in strength
      - others suggest it is a secondary hypothesis
- - - - Big social groups
      - vary in size
      - Cercopithecinae and Colobinae
      - Cercopithecoidea
        
        bilophodont molars
        
        all have ischial callosities (act as seat pads for branches)
    - - Hylobatidae(small apes)
        
        brachiation
        
        monogamous
        
        Gibbons and Siamangs
      - Hominidae(great apes)
        
        Orangutans- largest arboreal mammal
        
        Gorillas- one male, highly dimorphic
        
        Chimpanzees and Bonobos- mix sex
  - - - only nocturnal animal
      - no tapetum lucidem
      - monogamous
    - - small
      - monogamy and polyandry (suggested due to ferimons)
      - often give birth to twins
    - - medium size body
      - mix sex group
      - mostly fruit
      - use tools
    - - medium size body
      - monogamy (in Titi)
      - dental specialisation for fruit and seeds
    - - medium size body
      - mix sex group
      - leaves and fruit
      - long tails
      - brachiation in some
- - - - eat fruit (clumped distribution)
      - big incisors to bite into fruit and flat back teeth
      - medium sized gut, not highly specialised
    - - eat leaves (evenly distributed)
      - sharp back teeth
      - complex guts
    - - eat insects (randomly distributed)
      - sharp teeth for grinding
      - short simple gut since high energy food
    - - the competitive-exclusion principle states that 2 species that compete for the exact same resource cannot coexist
      - niche partitioning includes differences in diet, range and habitat
  - - - it is the amount of time dedicated to different activities
      - they are associated with differences in feeding competition, sociality, communications and body size
      - Day-range length measures the distance a group must travel in a day for food
    - - home range is the area in which they live
      - territorial is the exclusive access to the home range and is defended using warning signals and active fighting
      - being territorial has to outweigh the cost of doing it
    - - arboreal live in trees (so are smaller)
      - quadrapedalism walk on all fours (usually have longer limbs to help cover more distance)
      - leaping is common in smaller primates
    - - detection- live in groups so more eyes
      - dilution- live in groups to reduce chance of individual attack
      - deterrence- alarms and mobbing
      - crypsis- the ability to avoid detection by other organisms
    - - predation is often opportunistic
  - - - avoiding predation
      - access to mates
      - finding food
      - cooperative territorality
      - social benefits
      - mobbing (the act of cooperatively attacking or harassing a predator)
    - - need larger territory
      - increased competition and ranging distance
      - disease transmission
    - - social organisation
        
        solitary, pair bound, extended family group, one male multi female, multi male multi female
        
        can be flexible: fission-fusion are when small groups split off and multi-level are when one male units in larger groups
      - Mating system
        
        monogamy- 1 male 1 female, needed for parental investment
        
        polygyny- 1 male multi female, can be social or solitary groups
        
        polyandry- 1 female multi male, it is rare but more common in twin areas
        
        polygynandry- multi-male multi-female
      - social interactions
        
        can be agonistic or affiliative, and often a balance
        
        higher female ranks get better access to food and are central to the group, high rank males get better access to females
        
        cooperation includes grooming, coalitions, tolerance, reconciliation and fission-fusion
- - - - stay because offspring cannot survive with just mother
      - reproductive investment is a balance between mating and parental investment
    - - males are determined by female distribution
    - - mating competition is more common in males
      - mating season- more males die
      - birthing season more females die
      - often results in larger male size (mandrill males are 3x bigger)
      - sperm competition led to larger testis and affects sperm speed and morphology
      - Baculum is common in primates and is related to prolonged intromission
    - - sneak mating
      - territorial v Nomadic
      - bachelor male groups
      - coalitions
      - Bimaturism
    - - premating- sexual coercion and mate guarding
      - postmating- seminal proteins and genital plugs
      - infanticide (kills other's offspring)
    - - age
      - dominance rank
      - fertility
      - genetic quality
  - - - have to invest more because it is more costly in energy adn resources
      - protection is more common
      - territorial defence is less energy costly than infant carrying
    - - reproductive suppression
      - harassment during copulation
      - female transfer decisions
      - dominance rank
    - - extended receptive/mating
      - multiple mating
      - unpredictable ovulation
      - post-conception mating
    - - direct benefits- access to resources, male investment, protection
      - indirect benefits- genetic compatibility, elaborate traits (symbol of status)
      - cryptic choice- sperm goes through obstacles to get to the egg so can select the sperm that gets to egg