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U30, Verbs of cognition: "I know that they don’t care at all" -…

- - - - Main changes
        
        Present continuous > Past continuous
        
        Simple past > Past perfect
        
        Past continuous > Past perfect continuous
        
        Present perfect > Past perfect
        
        Present perfect continuous > Past perfect continuous
        
        Future > Conditional
        
        Future continuous > Conditional continuous
        
        Conditional > Conditional
        
        Past perfect > Past perfect
        
        Simple present > Simple past
        
        Modals: can > could, may > might, must/need > had to
      - Exceptions
        
        Reporting Vb
        
        Reports attributed to famous works or authors which have present validity: "The Bible says that greed is a sin"
        
        When idiomatic expressions or proverbs are involved: “An apple a day keeps the doctor away”, she says.
        
        When communicating in very recent past time: "She says she was too busy to join us yesterday"
        
        either backshift or reporting verb in Present tense
        
        Reported Vb
        
        When the Time reference of the original utterance has present validity at the time of the reporting:
        "The teacher said that the earth moves around the sun"
        
        Backshift
  - - - From 1st/2nd to 3rd person
        
        except when the speaker is reporting his own words: "I said that I liked my new house"
      - This/These > That/Those
        
        to indicate a backward personal or object reference
  - - - Today > That day
      - Yesterday > The day before/the previous day
      - The day before yesterday > Two days before
      - Tomorrow > The next day/the following day
      - Next week/month/year/etc. > The following week/month/year/etc.
      - The day after tomorrow > In two days' time
      - Here > There, Now > Then
  - - - admit, apologize for, deny, insist on:
        "I’ll pay”, said John vs. John insisted on paying
    - - agree, refuse, offer, promise, threaten
    - - Indicate~: murmur, mutter, shout, stammer, whisper
    - - Say’ + Object to introduce Indirect statements:
        "He said he’d just heard the news"
    - - Tell sb + how/about: to introduce commands:
        "He told us how he had passed the exam"
    - - situational & directional semantic changes
  - - - to express acknowledgement
      - apologize for, congratulate for, thank for, accept that
    - - Commands
      - beg, order, command, request, warn
    - - Questions
      - ask, wonder (if), enquire/ inquire, want to know
    - - Statements
      - say, affirm, answer, claim, confirm, deny, inform, report, state & exclaim, shout
- - - - to ask questions
      - Questions
        
        Requesting, by asking either yes-no or wh-questions
        
        to seek information
    - - to make statements
      - Statements
        
        Communicative functions
        
        Stating, by using positive & negative declarative sentences
        
        to convey information
      - Types of Sentences
    - - to give commands/orders
      - Directives
        
        Ordering, by giving positive & negative commands in the imperative form
        
        to order/request sb to do sth
    - - to make exclamations
      - Exclamations
        
        Exclaiming, by uttering exclamations in order to express emphasis
        
        to express strong emotion or emphasis
  - - - 2 main clauses involved in DS: the reporting clause, which contains the reporting verb (he promised) and the quote itself (“I won’t do it again”)
- - - - To quote literally what someone said, often in literary style and, in particular, in narrative style to give speed to the action. Yet, in everyday life we do not use it very often since it is quite difficult to remember word by word
    - - To give the exact meaning of a remark or a speech, without necessarily using the speaker’s exact words, very often in everyday life since it is quite difficult to remember the exact words a person said some time ago
    - - A way of narrating characters' thoughts/words that combines some of the features of 3rd-person narration (IS) with some features of 1st-person direct speech (DS), allowing a flexible and sometimes ironic overlapping of internal & external perspectives
        
        The use of Free Indirect Speech for describing interior monologues has became a widespread practice in 20th century's fiction
      - Basically a form of Indirect Speech where 1) the reporting clause is omitted because 2) back-shifted verbs in the past tense are used & 3) the features of Direct Speech sentence structure (questions, excalamations) are retained
        
        It presents the character's thoughts or speech in a way that blends with the narrator's voice, without the use of quotation marks or a reporting verb. It allows the reader to experience the character's perspective and thoughts while maintaining the narrative voice
        
        John thought, "The park looks beautiful today" (DS)
        
        John thought that the park looked beautiful that day. (IS)
        
        The park looked beautiful that day. (FIS)
  - - - the actual words a person says are quoted, that is, are reported between inverted commas (" ") & that the introductory reporting clause is preceded by a comma: “What are you doing?”, he asked me
    - - the words a person says are reported, that is, the speaker conveys a report of what has been said in his own words & that there is no comma after the introductory verb: He asked me what I was doing
  - - - may be placed in different positions with respect to the quote
      - At the end
        
        There cannot be inversion after the quote when the subject is a Pronoun, but with proper nouns & ‘ask, exclaim, suggest, reply, cry, reflect, suppose, whisper’ we may find Subject-Vb inversion in novels/literary texts: “I am ready”, replied John
        
        “I am ready”, John replied
      - In the middle
        
        Noun Phrase (“Your son” I shouted, “has broken my window car”)
        
        Vocative (“Paula”, he said, “don’t play with my sunglasses”);
        
        Adverbial clause (“Maybe” she thought, “he finds me too boring”)
        
        A clause if the quote contains more than one (“I was watching TV” she said “when that man phoned me”)
        
        In particular cases, after:
        
        in literary writing where reporting expressions often interrupt the normal flow of the sentences quoted
      - At the beginning
        
        Except for ‘wonder, agree, disagree, command, promise’,
        
        John replied, “I am ready”
    - - Statements
        
        "John said (that) he didn’t like meat" any other reporting verbs are valid: claim, state, add, admit, assure, explain, deny...
        
        Reporting verbs
        
        To report people’s thoughts:
        ‘accept’, ‘decide’, ‘expect’, ‘guess’, ‘know’, ‘agree’, ‘plan’, ‘feel’, ‘hope’, ‘dream’, ‘believe’
        
        To perceiving facts: ‘conclude’, ‘hear’, ‘realize’, ‘discover’, ‘note’, ‘see
        
        subordinate That-clause
      - Exclamations
        
        They become statements in IS & the exclamation mark (!) disappears: He said, ‘What a wonderful day!’ vs. He exclaimed that it was a wonderful day
        
        Let's: usually expresses a suggestion and becomes ‘suggest + gerund’ / ‘suggest + that + subject + should':
        
        He said, ‘Let’s go home’ > He suggested going home / He suggested that we should go home
        
        subordinate That-clause
        
        & Suggestions
      - Questions
        
        The interrogative form of the verb changes to the affirmative form and the question mark (?) is omitted.
        If the introductory verb is ‘say’, it must be changed to a verb of inquiry 'ask, wonder, want to know'
        
        Wh-question
        
        The interrogative word is the connective in the indirect question: ‘How are you?’, he said > He asked me how I was
        
        Yes/no-question
        
        The connective ‘if’ or ‘whether’ is placed after the introductory verb in the indirect question: ‘Is anyone there?’ he asked > He asked if anyone was there
        
        subordinate Wh-clause or If-clause
      - Commands
        
        Say is replaced by a verb of command/request: "advise, recommend, ask, beg, command, encourage, forbid, invite, order, remind, request, tell, urge, warn" require object + to-infinitive
        
        Verb of command/request/advice + object (without prep.) + (not) to-infinitive:
        
        He said, ‘Go away!’ > He told me to go away
        
        ‘say/tell + that + Subj + should’:
        
        He said, ‘Sit down, John > He said (that) John should sit down
        
        Negative: not + to-infinitive:
        
        He said, ‘Don’t sit down' > He told me not to sit down
        
        subordinate That-clause or To-infinitive clause without Subj
        
        & Request & Advice
      - Indirect ~ are introduced by a:
- - - - What one does in saying sth
        
        The communicative force of a message/utterance
        
        The implied meaning or the function/intention behind it
      - it has force; it is informed with a certain tone, attitude, feeling, motive, or intention
    - - What one does by saying sth
        
        The communicative effect of the utterance on the audience
        
        The effect of both the message & its purpose on the listener
      - it has consequence; it has an effect upon the addressee
    - - The act of saying something
        
        The actual form or literal meaning of a message/utterance
      - it has meaning; it produces an understandable utterance
      - "It's too hot in here"
  - - - Declaratives
        
        to bring about changes through our utterances by means of bringing about correspondence btw the propositional content & reality, by baptizing, naming, appointing or sacking
        
        'I now declare you husband and wife'
        'You're fired!'
        
        Performatives
      - Expressives
        
        to express our feelings and attitudes by thanking, forgiving or blaming. They are statements of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy or sorrow
        
        'I'm so sorry about yesterday. '
        'I really appreciate your help.'
      - Commisives
        
        to commit ourselves to some future action by promising & offering
        
        They express what the speaker intends: promises, threats, refusals, pledges...
        
        'I'll see you at 6 tomorrow'
        'I will, I promise!'
      - Directives
        
        to try to get someone else to do something by means of commanding & requesting
        
        'Pass me the salt please.'
        'You should not drink that!'
      - Assertives
        
        to tell people how things are by stating, asserting, predicting, describing, advising
        
        'Paris is the capital of France.'
        'I watched a great documentary last night.'
        
        Representatives