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- - - - 全面认识英语意义才能作出合理、科学、有效的决策，武断通过政策调整否定英语教育的重要想不可取。
      - 近来的政策趋势：英语退出高考、减低英语高考分值
        
        英语教育的意义和地位问题
        
        英语是否“有用”的争论
        
        有用有别于实用
        
        英语有用有别于“英语学习有用”
        
        “现在有用”有别于“未来有用”
        
        “不用”有别于无用
        
        基础教育阶段英语的意义
        
        外语能力是中小学生的核心素养之一
        
        英语学习可以促进学生心智的发展
        
        实施英语教育有利于促进教育公平
        
        背后原因：政策需要解决哪些问题？是否能够解决问题？
        
        英语学科影响其他学科的学习——英语对其他学科学习没有消极影响，反之有较明显积极影响
        
        多次考试可以解决一考定终身的问题——英语退出高考不能解决这个问题，只是拆东墙补西墙
        
        “使英语回归工具性”——“有用”之问，对英语价值的误解
        
        英语的重要性不会削弱——提及增加语文的重要性时表明需要增加语文——自相矛盾
      - 英语是否该考、是否该学？
    - - Chapter 4 Introduction. 4.1
        
        needs analysis
        
        curriculum development
        
        needs analysis→goals→syllabus→instruction→assessment
        
        can be small (in class) or large (i.e. an institute or language training organizatiion) in scale
        
        the nature of needs
        
        the definition of needs depends on whose point of view we are addressinng (the learner, the teacher, or a school director)
        
        Teachers, learners, employers, parents, and other stakeholders may thus all have different views as to what needs are; Identifying the perceptions and beliefs of different stakeholders is an important dimension of needs analysis
      - Curriculum and the teacher
        
        Curriculum also refers to how teachers enact or implement their teaching plans. From this perspective, curriculum refers to the teaching and learning that come about as a result of the teacher’s beliefs, understanding, teaching philosophy, and experience and how these shape the choice of activities, tasks, and strategies he or she makes use of in the process of turning course plans and syllabus
        
        The enacted curriculum
        
        The enacted curriculum refers to how teachers individualize the curriculum and create their own as a
        response to the unique features of each group of learners.
        
        The emergent curriculum
        
        Curriculum can also be understood to describe the affordances or opportunities for learning that emerge as the teacher and the learners engage in classroom learning
      - 1.3 1.4
        
        what role does a language teacher play in an enacted curriculum and an emergent curriculum?
        
        they will make choices concerning the kinds of materials, resources, and activities they will use, the sequencing of activities, the methods of teaching they will make use of, and the ways in which they will assess their students’ learning. Teachers will make such decisions based on their students’ interests, preferred learning styles, and preference for certain kinds of classroom activities.
        
        reflect his or her preferred teaching style, beliefs, and principles
        
        what is “curriculum as product” and “curriculum as process”
        
        curriculum as product
        
        the curriculum as a document that contains a framework for teaching, materials’ development and assessment and that serves to direct and manage the enterprise of language teaching.
        
        Forward design
        
        Backward design
        
        curriculum as process
        
        curriculum can also be understood as emanating from the classroom experiences that characterize language teaching “in action,” that is, as something that emerges from the activities of teaching and learning.
    - - 基础教育阶段英语教育政策之演变
        
        建国至文革时期的英语教育（从失宠到逐步得到恢复和重视）
        
        当前我国外语（英语）教育的政策与目的
        
        教育目的
        
        不能仅关注其实用目的，仅把语言当工具来看，当技能来训练，训练方法和内容应考虑学生的心智需求
        
        不能把外语教育与母语教育混为一谈
        
        政策问题
        
        外语教育究竟从那个年龄阶段开始最好？
        
        1.应开展历时研究，尤其从语言、认知及情感等方面认真考察儿童学习外语的经历对其自身发展带来的影响；
        2.年龄不是孤立因素，与教师水平、学生每周接触外语时间长短、学习材料及教学方法适切性以及教育目的等因素相互关联，共同影响。
        
        学习外语有没有临界期？
      - 当今国外主要国家的外语教育政策
        
        美国：外语教育政策和法案以国家安全为核心，突出外语在经济、文化合作与竞争中的作用
        
        英国：外语教育战略突出语言对个人发展的作用，突出终身学习；提倡从小学习外语，提供选修一门外语的机会
        
        欧洲其他国家也十分重视外语教育
  - - - top-down
        
        • National/state curriculum
        
        • Institutional curriculum
        
        • General curricul
      - Bottom-up
        
        • Teacher’s curriculum (syllabus)
        
        • Enacted curriculum
        
        • Emergent curriculum (curriculum as process)
      - A Product Approach to Curriculum
        
        a forward design
        
        a backward design
    - - What are ...?
        
        Aims and goals:
        
        often used interchangeably
        
        describe the general purposes of a curriculum
        
        Designed by planners for teachers to
        implement.
        
        Aims and goals are general, long-term statements of what the learner will be able to do.
        
        Objectives:
        
        describe the curriculum in specific and concrete terms
        
        there are different types of ‘objective’, linked to different approaches to curriculum and syllabus design.
        
        Objectives are statements of what learners will be able to do by the end of the unit, lesson, task or similar.
        
        example of performance objective: 《2022义教新课标中》的学段目标
        
        pros:Standardization, measurablility and accountability
        
        cons:
        
        5 more items...
        
        Designed by teachers (and sometimes learners too).
        
        Combining Product & Process Approaches
        
        How inputs become outputs
        
        Learners as creators of meaning and collaborators in understanding and extending meaning
        
        A Sample Lesson from Ms Liu
        
        Combining Performance & Process Objectives
        
        Needs Analysis
        
        Born from the push for accountability
        
        introduced through the ESP movement in the 1960s - perceived as a ‘radical’ break with previous approaches (Starfield, 2016)
        
        Definition: Needs analysis refers to the procedures
        used to collect information about the needs of learners
        
        Objective Needs
        
        language systems (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation)
        
        skills (reading, writing, speaking, listening)
        
        language functions and notions
        
        • interactional and sociolinguistic dimensions
        
        • texts and tasks
        
        • problems and impediments
        
        Subjective Needs
        
        • biographical information
        
        language learning experience
        
        experiences with texts and social practices
        
        perceptions of current and target needs
        
        learning styles
        
        wants, desires, expectations
        
        motivations, attitudes, feelings
        
        “Needs analysis often acts as the anchor for curriculum development and evaluation.
        
        )Audiences/users
        
        Publishers, textbook writers and test writers
        
        to ensure continued sales
        
        Inter)national funding bodies, governments, MoE officers, companies, other employer
        
        to ensure effectiveness of investment
        
        to respond to and drive policy (Richards 2001)
        
        Directors, teacher-trainers, teachers
        
        to guide decisions about course objectives
        
        to guide decisions about course syllabus, methodology and assessment
        
        can be used to persuade management to support initiative, and funding bodies to invest
        
        Philosophies that Guide Needs Analysis
        
        Methods in language teaching
        
        English for Specific Purposes
        
        Notional-functional syllabuses
        
        Communicative approach and Task-Based Learning
        
        Lexical approach and Text-based approach
        
        Methods of Needs Analysis
        
        Documentation
        
        Tests
        
        Class samples
        
        Observations
        
        Self-observation
        
        Meetings
        
        Questionnaires
        
        Language analysis
        
        Triangular approach
        
        Case studies
        
        Theories about language learning
        
        Nature of language
        
        Language learner
        
        Learning process
        
        stakeholders: Those who have in interest in the outcomes of the needs analysis are known as stakeholders
        
        Europe – Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
- - - - 普通英语与专业英语的问题
        
        我国发展使双语人才的要求变高，而专业英语的基础是普通英语，但普通英语的教学时间太长
        
        建议把普通英语教学任务全都放到中学阶段完成，在高校中则教学专业英语
        
        两者并无绝对界限，但学习专业英语的前提是普通英语打好基础
        
        历史原因：解放初期强调学俄语
        
        推广重点中学和外国语学校的经验，更大面积提高外语教学质量
      - 外语教育的起点问题
        
        可以比小学三年级更早
        
        但即使要加强英语教学，也不能取代汉语的首要位置
        
        不建议低年级出国上学，不利于祖国观念培养
      - 外语教学方法问题
        
        “听说领先”和交际法没有问题，只是从听说环节入手，最终目标是培养全面人才
      - 语法问题
        
        学还是不学？
        
        语法的重要性——需要学
        
        灌输语法非教学目的本身——要把语法摆在恰当的位置
    - - Chapter Four, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.9
        
        Who are the stakeholders in your context of language education?
        
        Learners parents teachers researchers administrators officials employers
        
        Is conducting needs analysis a common phenomenon in your context of language education, why or why not?
        
        No. Because students at a young age are lacking in self-control and life experience. It’s hard to understand the aim of English classes for students.
        
        If you are to conduct a needs analysis of your (future) EFL students, how will you do it and why?
        
        I will ask what they expect/want to get from the English class/ what’s English by their own definition/ why do they want/don’t want to learn English
      - 1.1 1.2
        
        What are the internal and external influences on curriculum
        
        internal
        
        Understandings of both the nature of language itself and how a second language is learned
        
        external
        
        Proficiency in English, which is a necessity for a country’s economy, trade, innovation, and income.
        
        What is a curriculum and what are the different types of curricula does this chapter introduce
        
        An institutional curriculum
        
        The range of courses that universities, schools, colleges, and other educational institutions offer.
        Reflect the needs of students in the institution.
        
        A national or state curriculum
        
        describes the goals of the educational system in a particular country or state.
        
        A general curriculum:
        
        developed by national or international educational bodies, by vocational or technical training bodies,(the Council of Europe or the United Nations)
    - - 问题
        
        测试任务真实性差
        
        测试任务与考生的互动性低
        
        测试构念依然属于传统语言能力模型，构念效度低：
        
        以牺牲测试其他质量属性来保证信度: 选择题无法直接考查学生实际运用英语的能力。
        
        对教学产生不利的影响
        
        测试资源尚未得到很好的开发利用，可行性程度有待提高
      - 解决方法
        
        应鼓励测试研究者与考试机构、教研部门相互合作，形成专业化团队。
        
        应注重提高一线外语教师的测评素养
        
        从语言测试开发的视角看，AUA 始于对测试“后果”的考量。它由后果、决策、解释、测评记录和考生作答表现五个紧密相连的环节组成，包括自上而下的测试开发和自下而上的测试使用两个视角
    - - 半个多世纪以来我国外语教改轨迹→外语教学的客观规律
        
        论争内容
        
        语言能力与交际能力的关系
        
        准确与流利的关系
        
        信息英语
        
        语言共核
        
        提炼结论
        
        学外语不应走捷径
        
        广泛阅读及多读原著是学好外语不可或缺的条件
        
        尊重外语教学的客观规律以稳步提高教学质量
        
        缺乏自然语言环境的条件下，将听说置于首位是无用的
        
        背诵、翻译、复述、听写等传统学习方法不是落后的过时方法
      - 读与写的重要性
        
        多数业内人士观点
        
        英语教学在我国应定位于EFL而非ESL
        
        读与写是我国英语教学的主攻方向（6位教授异口同声阐明）
      - 其他方面反响所反映的现象
        
        英语学习具有艰苦性和长期性，学生存在急功近利的浮躁现象
        
        过于强调英语教育的实用性和目的性
        
        对大学英语期望过高
        
        对大学英语和英语专业的学习内容和能力标准了解不足
        
        反思：应承认并严格遵循外语教学的客观规律，不偏离我国大学英语教育的根本目标
    - - 关于外语教育性质的认识
        
        从本质上讲,对外语教育性质的认识反映的是一
        种外语教育观。
        
        如何看待外语教育的性质,怎样给外语教育定位？
        我们应先给语言定位,即回答“语言是什么”。
        
        大多数英语教师一般只看到语言的交际功能语言的工具属性忽视了语言的认知、社会文化和生物属性。
        
        实际上语言还承载着一个国家一个民族的价值体系和意义体系。
      - 关于英语教学内容
        
        语言技能、语言知识、情感态度、学习策略和文化意识
      - 关于英语考试
        
        考试的负面影响是很大的，这个指挥棒对老师来说是一种折磨，对学生来说更是如此。
        
        这是制度问题，也有认识问题。
        
        两个小时的考试涵盖的语言行为样本十分有限
        
        中考、高考类外语考试都是分析性考试大量采用标准化“客观”题，不能反映学生的实际语言运用能力（语言运用的最大特点是整合）
  - - - meaning in the context of education
        
        total programme of courses, knowledge and skills to be taught/learnt
        
        specific goals, content, lessons and meterials on a particular course
        
        its associated educational theory, research and development (usually implicit)
      - comparison
        
        curriculum
        
        syllabus
        
        pay attention to relation between syllabus and curriculum
        
        definition: teacher's curriculum (i.e. focusing on content and sequencing) is often included in the meaning of curriculum
        
        what is taught?
        
        objectives
        
        what is to be achieved?
        
        methodology
        
        how it is taught?
        
        assessment
        
        what is tested and how it is tested
        
        curriculum development
        
        elements of curriculum development
        
        objectives
        
        syllabus
        
        methodology
        
        assessment
        
        evaluation
        
        how successful was it?
        
        aims and goals
        
        needs analysis
        
        what is needed
        
        comparison between curriculum development and curriculum
        
        similarity
        
        both focus on implementation of curriculum
        
        differences
        
        curriculum development also include:
        1.design & planning (needs analysis, choosing teachers, textbooks, etc.); 2.evaluation of the course/programme
        
        course books
        
        what it is: materials and tasks that reflect parts of syllabus
        
        relation between course books and curriculum
        
        course book is related to methodology (one part of curriculum)
        
        "where a teacher bases instruction on a textbook, this serves as the curriculum"
    - - internal influence
        
        come from within the language-teaching profession itself (aka the field of "applied linguistics)
        
        principles and philosophies
        
        principles: the nature of language itself and how a second language is learned
        
        Ellis (2011): Ten principles
        
        philosophies: a particular philosophy or set of beliefs
        
        Richards (2017.9): six curriculum philosophies
      - external influence
        
        Proficiency in English becomes a
        necessity
        
        Curriculum development, implementation and evaluation take place in particular sociocultural, political and ideological contexts;
        
        Policies shape curriculum development
        
        Educational policies
        
        Language policies
        
        Language-in-education policies
        
        Two Different Views on Curriculum
        
        A top-down, expert-driven view of curriculum
        
        • National/state curriculum
        
        • Institutional curriculum
        
        • General curriculum
        
        A bottom-up view of curriculum
        
        • Teacher’s curriculum (syllabus)
        
        • Enacted curriculum
        
        • Emergent curriculum (curriculum as process)
      - Process of Curriculum Development
        
        Teacher autonomy
        
        Teacher agency