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U6 (3. TEXT TYPOLOGY: CRITERIA FOR CLASSIFICATION, 4. ROUTINES &…

- - - - Representation of people, animals, objects, atmospheres in order to describe/ present their attributes & to create a mental image in the reader’s mind
    - - Narrative: focus on actions/events structured in terms of space rather than time
    - - Secondary: they do not have the illocutionary force of showing what the speaker’s speech act is intended to achieve
    - - Objective & subjective
  - - - Presentation & evaluation of o persuade & convince the audience of the value of the arguments presented. To present a suggestive argument (well-reasoned conclusions) for the audience to accept or at least seriously consider the speaker's POV
    - - Discussion, Interview, Speech, Essay, Opinion letter, Letter or Book on literary criticism
  - - - Action, events in time & life in motion in order to tell a story, but also to entertain, to inform, to change attitudes/social opinions or to provide an aesthetic experience
        
        Based on life experiences & is person-oriented by using dialogues & familiar language. Organized around the plot & characters by using story grammar (how stories are organized with beginning/middle/end)
    - - Folktales (Wonder/Tall/Realistic tales, Fables, Legends, Myths), Science/Contemporary/Historical fiction; Mysteries, Fantasy.
    - - Story elements (characters, setting, plot, conflict, theme), Inherent chronological order, and Narrator's point of view
  - - - Explanation & analysis of a subject/issue in a clear, detailed, organised way for the reader to understand & have relevant information
    - - neutral, objective & analytical
    - - Form & Organisation through a point-by-point discussion of a complex matter
    - - Essays, Scientific Treatises, Text books, Newspaper articles, Political Speeches & Lectures
  - - - Whether written or oral, Discourse is essentially social in nature, and inherently dialogic. The orality of discourse permeates social life since it has always been the main vehicle for the transmission of cultural knowledge.
        
        Both the form & content of the discourse depends on the speaker's social situation (what people think about themselves & about others, and what others think of them). So, in order to better understand oral discourse & dialogic texts, first we need to have a clearer understanding of the social nature of the situation
- - - - Formal / Informal letters:
        
        Beginning: "Dear sir/madam" or "Dear Mr/Mrs/Miss Jones" / "Hi"
        
        Ending: "Yours sincerely/faithfully", "Best regards" / "Love/Kisses"
        
        Types of formal letter:
        
        Opinion ~
        
        Application / Resignation ~:
        
        Recommendation ~
        
        Thanking / Apology ~
        
        Business / Academic ~
        
        Introductions: "The purpose/aim of this report/essay is to..."
        
        Formal expressions: "I am writing to inform you that..."
        
        Requests: "I would appreciate it if you could..."
        
        Offering assistance: "Should you need any help, please do not hesitate to contact me"
        
        Closing statements: "I look forward to hearing from you"
        
        Conclusions: "In conclusion", "Last but not least"
    - - Characterised by the use of highly conservative, formulaic & archaic language, it sets a legal precedent. it must be precise and very carefully chosen, and it may appear redundant
    - - articles, essays, theses, dissertations, etc.
      - have to conform to strict conventions, but may vary according to the field of knowledge where the research is carried out
  - - - Native speakers possess a list of memorised routines which help their speech sound natural, and if language learners wish to achieve a sense of naturalness as comparable as possible to that of a native speaker, they must be taught common formulae and routines as part of the speaking component of a language course
- - - - Punctuation
        
        Capital letters, full stops, commas, inverted commas (""), colons (:) semicolons (;), hyphens (-), brackets ( ), apostrophes (') & interrogative/exclamative marks
        
        purely visual
      - Orthography
        
        Correct spelling & rules of suffixation, prefixation & addition of verbal markers (gerunds, past tenses or 3.p.s. in present tenses)
      - Other devices
        
        Headings (& subheadings): to introduce sections & paragraphs
        
        Footnotes: to give explanations or clarifications of points made in the text (secondary to the message)
        
        Tables of content: to highlight key information in a more visual way
        
        Indexes: provide a reference in which to consult key terms & ideas from the text
        
        format
    - - Lexico-grammatical connections within & btw sentences
      - How individual utterances are linked structurally (grammatically & lexically) and facilitates interpretation of a text by means of cohesive devices which connect ideas within & between sentences
        
        How the components of the surface text, the actual words we hear or see, are mutually connected within a sequence
        
        3-level multiple coding system
        
        Lexicogrammatical
        
        Morpho-syntactic
        
        Phonological/Orthographic
        
        Semantic
        
        Cohesive devices/ties
        
        Grammatical ~
        
        Reference: referring back or forwards to a previously mentioned concept
        
        Substitution: replacing one item by another (an equivalent)
        
        Ellipsis: omitting an item that can be deduced/understood from the context
        
        Conjunction: Logical connections btw clauses or sentences
        (indicate the logical relationships btw ideas)
        
        Connecting adverbs & Conjunctions
        
        Addition: and, besides, additionally
        
        Contrast: although, however, on the other hand
        
        Listing: first, secondly, finally
        
        Illustration: such as, for instance
        
        Result: so, therefore, as a result
        
        Time: then, before, eventually, since
        
        Summary: in brief, in conclusion, to sum up
        
        Lexical ~
        
        Collocation: specific word combinations based on frequency & associations in the readers' minds
        
        Reiteration: repetition, synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, metonymy
        (to establish ‘chains’ of connected words running through discourse)
    - - The relatioships among the different meanings or contents of a text. When texts are not coherent, they do not make sense or make it difficult for the reader to follow & understand
        
        How the components of the textual world, thus the concepts and relations which underlie the surface text, are mutually accessible & relevant
        
        Established at 3 levels
        
        At sentence/paragraph level
        
        among the different sections/ideas
        
        Within an utterance
        
        At text/global level
        
        an integrated whole
      - Meaning relations
  - - - CONSTITUTIVE PRINCIPLES: Text/User-centred
        
        Informativity
        
        The extent to which the events of the text are expected-unexpected, known-unknown (content & function words)
        
        Situationality
        
        Relevant to a situation of occurrence/context of situation
        
        Acceptability
        
        The receiver's attitude. Having some use/relevance for the listener
        
        Intentionality
        
        The producer's attitude. Instrumental in fulfilling the speaker's intentions/purpose
        
        Grice' Cooperative Principle/ Conversational Maxims
        
        Quantity
        
        Be informative
        
        Quality
        
        Be truthful
        
        Relation
        
        Be relevant
        
        Manner
        
        Be brief & clear
        
        Coherence
        
        The components of the textual world, which underlie the surface text, are mutually accessible and relevant
        
        Intertextuality
        
        The factors which make the use of one text dependent upon the knowledge of previously encountered texts
        
        Cohesion
        
        The components of the surface text (the words we hear or see) are mutually connected within a sequence
      - REGULATIVE PRINCIPLES
        
        Effectiveness
        
        Has a good potential for fulfilling an aim
        
        Appropiateness
        
        Suits the communicative situation where it is used
        
        Efficiency
        
        Useful to the participants with a minimum effort
      - De Beaugrande & Dressler (1988)
- - - - Jakobson
        
        Oral vs Written communication
        
        Points of contrast
        
        Graphic features
        
        Many aspects of written language (tables, graphs & complex formulae, punctuation) cannot be conveyed by reading aloud (have no speech equivalent)
        
        Different registers
        
        Some constructions may only be found in writing, others only occur in speech (uses different types/registers of language: slang and swear words).
        
        Writing is more formal, it provides the standard that society values, which gives it a special status. We use it to learn/improve our command of vocabulary
        
        Formal/Informal
        
        Permanence/Spontaneity
        
        Permanence of writing: allows repeated reading & close analysis (across time-space, grammatically correct, more filtered and complex).
        
        Spontaneity & rapidity/immediacy of speech: minimises the chances of complex pre-planning & often includes repetitions, interruptions, and incomplete sentences
        
        Nominalisation/Verbs
        
        relies on nominalization VS relies on verbs
        
        Lexically simple/dense
        
        Writing is lexically denser (more content words per clause),Speech is lexically simple
        
        Phonic/Graphic substance
        
        uses PS (vocal), typically in the form of air-pressure movements VS uses GS (visual), typically in the form of marks on a surface
        
        Participants
        
        In speech interaction: feedback is possible (it is based on negotiation of meaning)
        
        In writing interaction: cannot usually see each other & cannot make clear what they mean (no immediate feedback/negotiation except for chat messages)
        
        Degree of Reciprocity
        
        Reciprocal activity
        
        anticipate/predict problems/misunderstandings (no) & compensate VS make corrections/clarify in real time (yes)
        
        Reactions
        
        put in compensatory work: skip/read carefully (no) VS show agreement/understanding/react (yes)
        
        (one/two-way)
        
        Time Factor
        
        Production
        
        carefully produced (yes) VS short-cuts/no unnecessary effort/mistakes (no)
        
        Memory
        
        recorded/keeping a structured account (yes) VS fail to remember (no)
        
        Planning
        
        planning/organization/no time pressure (yes) VS spontaneous/time pressure (no)
        
        Time limitations
        
        time to pause/deliberate/ponder (no) VS here-and-now (yes)
        
        Analysis of differences:
        Points of contrast
        
        Sender/Addresser
        
        Emotive
        
        To express the speaker's attitude, feelings, moods
        
        Receiver/Addressee
        
        Conative
        
        To persuade & influence others through commands & requests, to get the attention or a reaction from the addressee
        
        Situational context
        
        Referential
        
        To convey information in an objective way
        
        Channel
        
        Phatic
        
        To establish a social connection btw two speakers (the social function of language: not to give meaningful information)
        
        Code
        
        Metalinguistic
        
        To talk about the language itself (its features, word definitions) & to clarify/correct the way it is used (clarifying ambiguity)
        
        Message
        
        Poetic
        
        To focus on the message for its own sake: a decorative/aesthetic function of language. It is based on phonetic properties & explained by a universal desire to exploit the acoustic potential of language
        
        6 Elements of communication, associated to 6 Functions of language
      - A much wider domain of enquiry of which language is part: the analysis of linguistic & non-linguistic signs in communication processes in general. It deals with patterned human communication in all its modes and in all contexts
        
        Non-Verbal
        
        Visual & Tactile modes
        
        Verbal
        
        Speech
        
        Limited
        
        Speech sounds > Phonemes
        
        Writing
        
        Unlimited
        
        Linguistic units > Words
        
        Code: Language
        
        get the message by
        
        Sound (auditory-vocal)
        
        Speech, Musical sounds, Paralanguage
        
        Touch (tactile)
        
        Braille alphabet of the blind, Secret codes
        
        Sight (visual)
        
        Writing, Sign languages, Morse, Traffic lights
    - - The physiological & genetic evolution of our vocal tract was essential in the emergence of language, which was accompanied by natural sounds & body language.
- - - - Writing was not intended to replace Speech: they serve different purposes & this leads to structural differences (differences in form & function)
        
        Process (dynamic)
        
        Product (static)
- - - - Speech precedes writing chronologically in both the history of people and the development of a person
      - There are non-literate language communities
      - Writing is an arbitrary representation of a language
      - Deciphering written records is impossible without previous knowledge of language
      - Written forms hinder rather than help our understanding of actual speech (is a poor guide to the underlying phonemes)
  - - - Speech (the real object of study): what people say varies to some extent from individual to individual & from situation to situation
    - - No independent life, its only function was to represent/make manifest the sound system/system of sounds which form a language
    - - Language system: the language rules of a social group outside of individual use: the systematic structures underlying individual utterances