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Lil' bit o' Confrontation and Cooperation for the Jan Mocks -…
Lil' bit o' Confrontation and Cooperation for the Jan Mocks
Cooperation
Attitudes of Khrushchev and Kennedy after the CMC
Khrushchev:
More interested in Soviet economy and Russian living standards.
Interested in peaceful coexistence, but had to show that he was still anti-Western to maintain Soviet dominance in Communist world ex. against Mao.
After CMC, Khrushchev was amenable to a US-Soviet relationship based on mutual restraint, rather than brinkmanship.
Kennedy:
Genuine desire for cooperation. Even before Berlin or CMC, demonstrates a desire to prevent nuclear threat from taking on a larger role.
Ensuring that nuclear weaponry was present in stable countries.
MAD - Mutually Assured Destruction. Focues on idea that US and USSR should be equal in terms of nuclear capacity. Deterred actual consideration of nuclear weapons as a resort, as it determines that all nuclear powers were rational actors. Related to CMC and Hiroshima/Nagasaki: previous nuclear destruction. Move away from Brinkmanship.
Sino-Soviet split: both US and USSR isolated by Chinese, could use this as uniting cause.
Limited by US' reputation and internal conflict - Kennedy still needs to appear as defender of Capitalist cause.
Washington-Moscow 'hotline'
Set up June 1963
Aimed to provide direct communication between leaders of USA and USSR.
Prior to hotline, leader waited for calls to go through series of exchanges before two could converse.
Enabled leaders to reach each other 24/7, through emergency system. One leader - draft message, encrypted before transmitted. Not instantaneous, but quicker than before.
Symbolised new spirit of Cooperation, though on limited scale.
Hot line used by neither Kennedy nor Khrushchev, LBJ first to use alerting Soviets about US support to Israel in 67.
Moscow Test Ban Treaty, Aug 1963
Signed in Aug 1963 by the US and USSR. Came after years of negotiations between Kennedy and Khrushchev.
Idea proposed by Soviets in the 50s. Initial discussions larger in scope.
Some opposition in Us and USSR after CMC, the public not wanting to be seen as weak to the other power. Countered by those who recognised threat of nuclear war as a result of CMC.
An agreement finally reached in Aug 1963. Speech by Kennedy key in gaining US support and USSR hosting talks allowed Khrushchev to shoe that USSR was bargaining from position of strength.
Agreement partial or limited - it did not include underground tests.
However, above-ground, underwater and outer space nuclear resting was prohibited. Treaty signed by US, USSR and UK.
France and China refused to sign the agreement and French continued to test nuclear weapons in South Pacific well into 90s, China until 96.
So, limitations include:
Partial nature, underground tests not included.
France and China refusing to sign, continuing to test nuclear weapons in South Pacific into 90s (China specifically 96)
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, July 1968
Cooperation:
By late 60s, lack of nuclear parity between Us and USSR ended, Soviets developed supremacy in defence system (like MAD).
Early 67, McNamara persuades LBJ to delay American ABM system prior to USSR negotiation over expansion and deployment of their ABMs. USSR reluctant to include ABMs in negotiations, but USA develops MIRVs, and Soviets are convinced. USSR's ABMs not designed to stop multiple warheads, so lost advantage.
Another issue - practical issue of cost. Nuclear Arms Race become prohibitively expensive; arms control viable. Oct 1964, PRC tests nuclear bomb, entering race.
Britain, US and USSR collab on Non-Proliferation Treaty, finalised July 1968, intended to introduce means of checking spread of nuclear weapons. Allowed signatories to develop research production and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, meaning nuclear energy could still be sued as a source for fuel.
Treaty established the principle that non-nuclear states would never be able to establish nuclear weapons arsenals by forming alliances with those states that had nuclear weapons.
An evolving treaty, other counties encouraged to sign. Most countries in UN eventually sign treaty. F and C do not sign until 92, but privately pledge to adhere to terms in 68.
Lack of Cooperation:
Kennedy admin, though accepting test ban on nuclear weapons, continued to produce ICBMs and SLBMs to strengthen their defence. USA had overestimated the strength of the Soviet nuclear threat in 1963, and continued construction despite proof of reports.
USSR developed tech to intercept nuclear weapons (ABMs), presenting major shift in effectiveness of nuclear missiles as deterrent to nuclear weapons use. If one side could destroy nuclear ability of other, MAD no longer effective.
America's motives: America concerned with arms race or financial contigencies.
Cut back in materials for nuclear weapons: -
Pressures on the USSR
Crisis in Czechoslovakia 1968:
Prosperous Eastern Europe vital for prosperous USSR. C historically prosperous, but started to delcine 1963, leading Cs to reconsider relationship with socialism and Communist Party.
Signals of revolt begin 1960s. Oda Sik proposes reforms to economy (workforce having more rights, Communist Party responsive to public opinion, end to centrally planned economic targets for whole country, existence of consumer rights). Communist Party would not allow changes so 1966 Sik argues for political reform and gains support from intellectuals, students, wider public.
Prague Spring 1968. Antonin Novotny pressured into resigning by USSR. Replaced by Dubcek, who appeared to be usual Party bureaucrat, but turned out to be advocate of reform. Began to replace key officials with those in support of reform. Kremlin watched C carefully. D removed press censorship, exposing Eastern Europe to 'democratic infection'.
April 1968 - D announced Action Programme, distinctive Czechoslovakian path towards socialism. Gov would allow certain freedoms (press, speech, movement). Communist Party would be leaders, but would acknowledge legitimacy of non-party institutions like trade unions ex. KAN and Club K-231.
S promised C would remain loyal to Warsaw Pact. Most EE countries alarmed, but no clear opposition to the Action Programme. C reformers managed to end all press censorship, plan open borders with West and begin trade agreement discussions with West Germany whilst maintaining country was loyal member of socialist order.
Late June 1968, Warsaw Pact countries conducted military exercises in C and met to express concerns on 14-15 July 68. 'Warsaw Letter' sent to C, warning that it was seen as threat. End of July 68, B and D had last of 6 meetings. Brezhnev wanted split in C Comm Party and that pro-Soviet group would emerge, but this did not happen. D continued on liberal path so WP forces invaded C Aug 20-21 1968. Pact faced no international action. Big complaints from China and Romania. NATO not threatened but USSR violated sovereignty of C and the invasion undermined possibility that change could be achieved through party led reform.
Brezhnev Doctrine 1968:
Est in a speech delivered by B in NOV 1968
B expanded upon responsibility of communist states to intervene to protect good of whole communist community.
Defined what deviation from communism would lead to.
Despite doctrine, Czech crisis happened.
Dubcek remained in power until 1969, as no one wanted to replace him.
New gov led by Gustav Husak conformed to Soviet line, remained in power until collapse of USSR in 1989.
Regime dependent on Soviet military presence to retain power and Red Army remained in C until 1990.
Relations with China
Beginning:
14 Feb 1950, Mao visits for Stalin's 70th, and to negotiate Sino-Soviet Pact. Committed both states to co-operate in terms of defence in case of attack by Japan or USA, conclude peace with Japan, not conclude hostile agreements with rival states, consult closely on matters of mutual interest.
USSR to be supplied with raw materials (tungsten, tin, antimony) for ten years at low costs, and Stalin to provide military support for PRC.
Sino-Soviet split - worsening relations:
Nixon and Kissinger saw good relations with China as being advantageous to USA.
China realised isolationism was not advantageous for them.
Worsening Sino-Soviet relations paved way for improved Sino-American relations.
Stalin's death led to Mao considering himself the senior communist leader, resentful when Khrushchev did not recognise this. Mao had respected Stalin.
1959, Khrushchev held summit with Eisenhower, Soviets alarmed by developments within China, sought to appease West.
Sino-Soviet relations deteriorate in late 60s; hostility increased between the two communist powers.
Mao criticised CMC, claimed that USSR slipped back into capitalism.
Late 60s, clashes between Soviet and Chinese troops on Chinese-Russian border.
Long history of divisions between two ex. 1870s Xinjiang border dispute, Boxer rebellion, fought over Mongolian influence until 1924 defeat of Chinese influence.
Khrushchev:
Indirectly supported India in 1959 border dispute with China.
Withdrew tech aid from Chinese, removing Soviet experts in 1960.
Refused to fulfill agreement to provide prototype atomic bomb, undermined China's embryonic nulcear weapons programme.
Did not notify China of decision to place nuclear weapons on Cuba in 1962.
Mao:
Provoked USA through bombing of Taiwanese islands of Quemony and Matsu in 1958
Criticised Khrushchev for removing missiles in Cuba as betrayal of Cuban revolution.
Criticised K for being unwilling to use nuclear weapons.
Brief timeline:
1962: China-India border conflict.
July 1963: Talks between China and USSR break down.
1964: China call for territory that it claimed USSR had occupied historically - parts of Siberia
Oct 1964: K resigns putting responsibility into Brezhnev's hands, who wanted positive relations with China.
Late 1964: Malinovsky incident - at Sino-Soviet talks Soviet Defence minister Malinovsky suggests that China get rid of Mao as USSR had got rid of K.
April 1965: USSR request meeting with China and North Vietnam to develop response to US escalation of Vietnam War. Met with resistance from China, meeting never took place. Mao wanted NV to be dependent on China, did not want USSR intervention. USSR also wanted a Soviet air force base in S China to house 12 MiG-21 fighter planes to protect Sino-V border against US.
1966: Cultural Revolution.
Feb 1967: USSR stationed military in Mongolia and east Kazakhstan.
March 1969: build up of troops alarms China, led them to believe USSR intending to attack. China ambush Soviet border patrol near Zhenbao island in eastern USSR.
June 1969: B summs up Soviet policy when he states: we assume that the stronger the defence of our borders, the less danger there is of a really serious military confrontation on our Eastern frontiers.
Aug 1969: Second incident along Westerm frontier Zinjiang
Sept 1969: Talks in Beijinf reassure noth sides against War, but talks failed to improve relations.
1970s: efforts to reconcile China failed.
July 1971: Kissinger made secret visit to Beijing to make arrangements for Nixon's visit (1972), to which Soviets retaliated by organising their own Nixon summit.
Oct 1971: Kissinger makes second trip to Beijing in prep for Nixon.
Feb 1972: Nixon visits Beijing (SINO-AMERICAN ALLIANCE).
1972-74: Russo-American summits.
1976: Mao dies, Deng Xiaoping is necxt leader from 78.
US-Chinese relations and 'ping-pong' diplomacy:
1968 Nixon comments that US should actively seek good Sino-American relations. July 1969, USA remove trade controls and relax travel restrictions. Begin 'artichoke' approach - gradual peeling off of restrictions. US use diplomatic connections through France, Romania and Pakistan to promote idea of US willingness to work towards improving Sino-American relations.
By early 1970, Some diplomatic connections between China and USA established in Warsaw.
Chin also play a part in improving relations with USA. Aug-Sept 1970, Zhou Enlai, Chinese PM, opened relations with USA. Recognition that USSR represented a greater threat to China. Not acknowledged until 1972. Central to this, Mao's recognition of shifting dynamics.
'Ping-pong' diplomacy: April 1971, US Ping-Pong team invited to Beijing. Symbolic gesture of diplomacy. Followed CR. FP gesture. Came before Nixon's visit in Feb 1972.
July 1971: Kissinger visits Beijing. Agreement to establish presidential visit and Sino-American summit in early 1972.
Death of MAo's designated successor and opponent of Sino-American relations Lin Bao in Sept 1972 = improved relations.
Oct 1971 - Kissinger makes second trip to Beijing, fails to persuade China to pressurise N Vietnam into peace.
Causes of the Sino-Soviet Split:
Political: K felt he should be leader of the world as leader of first communist state, K indirectly supported India in border dispute 1959, M criticised K's actions in CMC, M provoked USA bombing Quemony and Matsu in 1958.
Economic: K withdrew tech aid by removing Soviet experts in 1960, K refused to fulfil agreement to provide prototype atomic bomb.
Ideological: M felt he was not respected by USSR, accused K of revisionism due to peaceful co-existence.
1966 Cultural Revolution KEY FACTS:
Brutal period of time, social and political chaos, stemming from Mao's attempts to reassert control and destroy enemies.
Crippled economy, ruined lives and thrust China into 10 years of bloodshed, hunger and stagnation. Students attacked people wearing 'bourgeois clothes', 'imperialist' signs torn down, intellectuals and part officials murdered or driven to suicide.
Began Mid-May 1966 when party chiefs in Beijing issued the 'May 16 Notification'. Warned that the party had been infiltrated by revisionists plotting to create a 'dictatorship of the bourgeoisie'.
Chinese students sprung into action, set up Red Guard divisions in classrooms and campuses. By Aug 1966 (Red August) Mayhem in full swing as Mao's allies urged destruction of the 'four olds' - old ideas, customs, habits and culture.
Schools and unis closed, churches, shrines, libraries, shops and private homes ransacked or destroyed.
Mao ordered security forces not to interfere. Nearly 1800 people lost their lives in Beijing in Aug and Sept alone.
After student led red terror, chaos spread. Workers joined into the 'virtual civil war'.
Late 1968, Mao realised revolution was out of control issued instructions to send millions of youth down to countryside for 're-education'. Ordered army to restore order, transformed China into military dictatorship, lasting until 1971.
Historians believe somewhere between 500,000 and two million people lost their lives as a result of the cultural revolution.
Cultural revolution isolated China from USSR.