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The Global War Pt.2 - Jan Mocks Revision - Coggle Diagram

- - - - K wanted to redefine the relationship between the USSR and its Eastern Bloc satellite states and improve the long term stability, economic growth and living conditions in the Communist bloc.
        
        Wanted to achieve de-Stalinisation but without changing the basic structure of the communist system.
        
        25 Feb 1956, K delivered his 'secret speech' which reported Stalin's crimes.
        
        This speech was circulated around Eastern Europe and had profound implications for stability in the Eastern Bloc in 1956.
      - Secret speech basically declared Stalin's dictatorship to be contradictory to the core values of communism that USSR was founded upon. Stalin's rise to power and methods of maintaining his position were no longer acceptable.
        
        K emerged as leading Party figure by teaming up with PM Malenkov to remove Beria from office. Beria was the key chief of the NKVD secret police who had, alongside Stalin, caused for many innocent lives to be lost. Beria accused of being a spy and was executed - last political execution in Russian history - first act of de-Stalinisation. K then outmanoeuvred Malenkov for the position of the leader of the Soviet Union. Confirmed as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in Sept 1953.
        
        Secret Speech was given at the CPSU's 20th Party Congress in Feb 1956. K returned for a closed session at the end of general proceedings to deliver the speech. K was hesitant to decide how much info that he should reveal, might his involvement in the Stalinist purges of the 1930s be revealed.
        
        The speech provided a harsh criticism of Stalin's rule from the 1930s, but was careful not to attack the regime as a whole. Stalin was denounced for his tyrannical style of ruling, his tendency to victimise innocent people and the Purges. The USSR under Stalin was painted to be a type of cult, with Stalin the object of worship - the system being fine, and Stalin having simply warped it so that it benefited him first and foremost.
        The impact of the speech was, as expected, massive. It caused huge unrest inside and outside the party. Some delegates fainted, other committing suicide. Pro-Stalin supporters rioted in Georgia, while anti-communists rebelled in Poland. Statues of Stalin began to be removed. In Hungary, people were inspired to attempt to remove themselves from Soviet control.
    - - The cult of personality
      - Centralised planning
      - One party system
      - Dominance of the Communist Party
      - Press censorship
      - Secret police
  - - - Eisenhower and K meet for 2 days. Came to general agreement. K visit not going well; angered by 20th century fox, refused entry to Disneyland. Eisenhower positive going into talks. Stated the USSR would have to make concessions, but K also optimistic. Talks produced no official treaties or specific agreements, but both sides stated that they benefited from meetings as they had a clearer understanding of the other's motives. Disarmament most important question, and both sides resolve to open talks about Berlin, trade and cultural exchange.
        Eisenhower planned to visit Russia next year.
        BUT U2 spy plane.
- - - - Growth of international tension: - Build up of arms a response to external factors - growing hostility between superpowers after 1945. Arms viewed as necessary as CW developed. Development of A-bomb upped stakes, nuclear age having possibility for more damage and loss of life. Both sides vulnerable without upper hand - USA maintaining monopoly on nukes 1945-49. Security and boastful nature of both Stalin and K ensured US remained concerned, US' decision to develop H-bomb prompted by USSR challenge over Berlin 1948-9, takeover of China and outbreak of Korean War 1950. Led to Soviets developing own super bomb. Arms race sub for war.
      - National and personal considerations: - Keeping ahead in arms race a matter of pride. Both saw opportunity to enhance national prestige and secure rep. 1950s - attempted to impress third world countries with benefits of capitalism and communism. Personal leaders also felt that they had to securte reps: best seen in K's constant boasting. April 1956, London, K informs PM's wide that missiles would have an effect on London/could reach there. Untrue. K took particular interest in Space program. American leaders also susceptible to pressures of democracy, more so. Pushed them to increase arms. American defence spending saw increase when dears circulate that 'bomber gap' had developed. Though this was based on unreliable info - Eisenhower still struggled to reduce spending, with public feats. 1961 - Kennedy;s youth and inexperience made him feel vulnerable - increased spending. 1962, US expenditure reached 50 bill for first time since K war.
      - Domestic factors: Arms race could benefit sectors of economy related to armament; can be seen as result of increasing internal matters in addition to external factors. Groups benefiting from armament became increasingly influential and powerful within their respective societies. USSR - armed forces able to exert influence in gov as defence given such high priority. Attempt to cut spending resisted by K, found out in 1964. USA - arms race provided large sums of money to manufacturers, scientists and armed forces. Led to employment of 30 mill Americans. Military-industrial complex able to wield enormous control over politics. Eisenhower concerned. Both USSR and America fed off each other in perpetuating arms race, maintained power within own country as result.
  - - - In 1958, K became the ultimate decision maker in USSR> The context influencing him was: The soviet space programme appeared superior to the US', West Germany was a member of NATO, meaning that it could get nuclear weapons and threaten Soviet security.
        
        The USSR's hold on its satellite states is fragile. Heavy Soviet defence spending drained these states and undermined confidence in communism as consumer goods became scarce.
        
        There were no real restrictions on Germans leaving the GDR for the FRG - undermined economy in GDR even more.
        
        The West had not recognised the GDR.
        
        By 1958 Sino-Soviet relations were deteriorating and K needed to strengthen the USSR's credentials as the dominant communist power.
        
        K priorities were to strengthen the economy and defences of the USSR, and to spread communism. Berlin became the focal point for the fulfilment of these objectives.
      - Due to Western investment in capitalist West Berlin the comparison with communist East Berlin became stark. K wanted to minimise US influence in Germany and gain assurances that West Germany would never be armed with American nuclear weapons.
        
        On 27 Nov 1958, the USSR issued a six-month ultimatum to the West demanding the withdrawal of their troops from West Berlin and it to be declared a 'free city'. The aim of this was to get the West to negotiate an acceptable settlement of the German problem - if they did not, then the USSR would sign a separate treaty with the GDR, which would:
        
        Threaten the Western power's access to, and occupation, West Berlin.
        
        Transfer all Soviet rights in Berlin to the GDR, meaning they controlled access to West Berlin.
        
        Force the Western powers to negotiate with, and therefore recognise, the GDR.
        
        Ultimately mean the Hallstein Doctrine signed in 1955 was irrelevant.
      - The number of refugees from East to West Berlin was dramatically increasing. After events in Poland and Hungary, many people thought it impossible to fight the Communists. For many the only way out was escaping. Some left because they hated Communists, while others were seeking new economic opportunities as the living standard behind the Iron Curtain continued to decline.
        No. refugees from East to West Berlin:
        1949 - 129,245
        1953 - 331,390
        1961 - 207,026
    - - The HALLSTEIN DOCTRINE 1955:
        
        According to this doctrine, the FDR (West Germany) had exclusive right to represent the entire German nation. Except for the USSR, the gov had refused to maintain diplomatic relations with states that recognised GDR.
        
        The FRG would regard recognition of the GDR, by any state other than the USSR, as an unfriendly act and would therefore end diplomatic relations with such states.
      - On 31 Dec 1958, the Western powers rejected the ultimatum.
        
        Even so, the US and UK wanted to lessen confrontation with the USSR, alarming the FRG, particularly when British PM Harold Macmillan visited Moscow in Feb 1959, and K was invited to Camp David by Eisenhower in Sept.
        
        Talks inconclusive but Konrad Adenauer feared an American betrayal. Any further progress over the future of Berlin and Germany was stopped by the U2 incident.
        
        Data from the U2 flights confirmed that the USSR was exaggerating its nuclear capacity and the missile gap was in the USA's favour.
    - - K constantly aiming to avoid closing border, but changed his mind over large numbers of citizens migrating. 10,000 in the first half of 1961. Many skilled workers and so essential to economic growth.
        Walter Ulbricht, East Germany chancellor, persuaded K to act. On 13 Aug 1961, work began to physically seal off West Berlin.
        At first, wire fences, then a concrete wall with deep perimeter defences. There were 4 recognised crossing points. US and Soviet tanks faced each other at Checkpoint Charlie.
        Arguably - West Berlin's success is what led to enhances conflict with the East, who were now determined to prove themselves just as prosperous as the FDR had become. Easy travel from one into the other only highlighted the disparity between the two states, and allowed all to view the stark difference for themselves.
        Over 500,000 over the previous two years, by the end of 1956 showed that well over a million more had departed from the East.
        K's ultimatum initially established to allow the GDR time to better itself, however time was only lost, with more and more moving - the population of the GDR had declined since 1949, from 19 to 17 mill.
        Major crisis for Communism - Mikoyan warns in July 1961 that this could be the end.
        Ulbricht had plans in place since 1952 at least to prevent travel continuing from East to West Berlin, via building a wall around the West. Had been resisted by Soviet leaders. K thought that a better method of dealing with the unrest would be to created better living conditions in the East.
        Janos Kadar, Hungarian leader, predicted fate of the Berlin Wall in 1961, claiming it was more dangerous for the communist ideology than for the actual circumstances that it brought about within the city.
        K even admitted that the wall was a 'hateful thing', but claimed helplessness and no other resort.
        The wall was erected on the night of Aug 12-13, 1961. Saw the stabilisation of East Berlin's economy - kept everyone in. Provided a resolution that was not literal war, or possible use of nukes.
        When Kennedy visited in June 1963, noted that the US never had to build a wall to keep everyone in.
- - - - America showed little support for Batista regime during Castro's revolution.
        
        US willing to allow revolution as long as it was not communist or receiving aid from communist states.
        
        May 1958 Vice President Richard Nixon visited Latin states, marked shift in attention towards region.
        
        Economic stability was target. US aided creation of regional banking, Inter-American Development Bank and regional common markets.
        
        Eisenhower agreed not to offer unconditional American support to dictators. Ordered embargo on further arms shipments to Batista.
      - Castro needed support of great power to manage the US response to reduce US economic and political influence in post-revolutionary Cuba
        
        Castro needed to maintain his own authority and Cuba's independence and avoid alienating Powerful internal and external allies.
        
        May 1959 Castro introduces programme of agrarian reform, led to lots of American owned property being seized by state. Reforms were moderate rather than revolutionary and they did not instantly generate hostile US response.
      - US fears of Cuba becoming a Soviet satellite state in the Caribbean and a base from where the pro-communist regimes could be managed across Latin America were heightened when Mikoyan (First Deputy Premier) visited in Feb 1960 and arranged $100 million dollars in credit with Castro.
        
        Tied Cuba into economic and political relationship with Soviet Union.
    - - Mongoose authorised on 30 Nov 1961, aimed to overthrow Castro through the use of Covert Operations (acts of sabotage and intimidation.
        
        Was headed by General Edward Lansdale.
        
        Budget estimation by CIA = 4.4 mill US dollars.
    - - AUG 1962
        
        Kicked off the CMC, as the code name for the Soviet decision to deploy nuclear missiles on Cuba.
        
        Installed nuclear weapons, provided MIG-21 fighter planes, bombers and 14,000 ground troops. Nuclear weapons were short and medium range, with the capacity to reach between 1100 and 2800.
        
        JULY 1960, K threatened Us with missile attack if it dared invade Cuba and suggested Washington declare end of Monroe Doctrine (formulated by Pres Monroe that European powers sould not intervene on American continent).
        
        4 OCT 1962: the Soviet ship Indigirka arrives at port Mariel in Cuba with enough nuclear warheads to equip at least 158 strategic and nuclear weapons.
      - Why was Cuba an opportunity that K could not miss?
        
        Important geostrategically. Redressed the imbalance of Soviet ability to match range of US missiles.
        
        Would allow K to reduce military spending. Funding could be directed to modernisation of nuclear weapons and investment into non-military civilian economy.
        
        K may have hoped to develop linkage strategu between Cuba and BErlin where he hoped to remove Western presence. He had been embarrassed by failure in Berlin and it also had implications for the security of the communist bloc in Eastern Europe.
      - Why CMC for Castro?
        
        To defend revolution, which had become symbolic of the success of Marxism-Leninism and its defeat would throe the revolutionary movement back in many countries.
    - - 14 OCT: U-2 Spy plane flight produces unmistakable evidence of R-12 missile site at San Cristobal
        
        16 OCT: McGeorge Bundy informed Kennedy of presence of Soviet nuclear missiles on Cuba. Kennedy assembles ExComm (Executive Committee of the National Security Council). Main role was to consider policy options and consequences. Included McNamara (defence secretary), Dean Rusk (Secretary of State), Robert Kennedy (Attorney General) and Maxwell Taylor (Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff).'Hawks' and 'Doves'. Kennedy favours Hawks, until McNamara suggests naval blockade or 'quarantine'.
        
        17th OT: UN security council meet. US ambassador condemns Cuba, USSR ambassadors Zorin and Dobrynin claim ignorance. - 22nd OCT: Kennedy orders naval 'quarantine'. Kennedy gives speech.
        
        24th OCT: First Soviet ships on route to quarantine turn around.
        
        26th-27th OCT: Kennedy's options open, could still resort to aggression. K sends letter to Kennedy, proposes removal of missiles for US' promise not to invade. Later sends second letter asking that US also remove 'Jupiter' nukes from Turkey. Castro undermines attempts at diplomacy, orders low-level firing on reconnaissance planes. ExComm discover that a U2 plane had been shot down and its pilot killed. Kennedy already responding with US air attacks against Soviet S-75 anti-aircraft emplacements on Cuba. Kennedy decides to respond to 1st letter and ignore 2nd. Secret meeting between Dobrynin and Robert Kennedy in which they agree on terms of peace. Soviets to remove nukes from Cuba, USA to remove nukes form Turkey. CANNOT be revealed to NATO, US cannot be seen as backing down to USSR.
        
        28th OCT: K issues statement that Soviet missiles to be dismantled and removed. Castro enraged, refused inspections of dismantled sites. Eventually relieved when Soviet ships removing missiles reveal contents to US inspectors.
    - - Test Ban Treaty and hotline
      - Implications
        
        Kennedy: - Presige increased massively. Seen as one who had called K's bluff. Not until after death that true negotiations (Jupiter missiles removed from Turkey) were revealed.
        
        Khrushchev:
        
        Criticised by Castro and Mao, accused of surrender and betrayal. Weakened position in USSR. Fall in Oct 1964 more result of domestic policies and power struggles than CMC.
        
        Superiority of USA in nuclear weapons shock to Soviet leadership. USSR determined to achieve parity in nuclear weapons with USA and began an ambitious programme for the constructions of ICBMs. Total command of seas by USA enabled efficient quarantine around Cuba, this also persuaded USSR to build large navy, which may lead it to be able to spread global influence in future.
        
        Castro: - Soviet decision seen as betrayal. Castro convinced that Cuba would need to develop own revolutionary strategy, Mid 1960s, Castro actively assisted revolutionary movements in the Developing World,
    - - OPLAN 312 was developed as an air strike plan, and OPLAN 314 was a land-based invasion.
        
        US did not want o intervene as there was no suggestion that these arms could threaten the US.
        
        March 1962, US military manoeuvres known as Operation Quick Kick started in the Caribbean. K's Defence Minister Malinovsky, concluded that in the face of a determined US attack, Cuba would tand for no more than a week. K decided to deploy Soviet nuclear missiles on cuba in 1962.
- - - - HCM and the NLF:
        
        DEC 1960: NLF est a new organisation in the South, the NLF. The purpose of the NLF was to free South Vietnam 'Use imperialism' and to create a unified independent Vietnam.
        
        NLF was a collation of different groups, all united in their rejection of Diem. So much opposition to his policies: to destroy communists in SV, ignoring the interests of the rural peasants, gov appointed officials (mostly Catholics) who replaced local council.
        
        Different groups were also united by their wants for a reunified Vietnam, and the 'imperialist' Diem served as a barrier to this.
        
        the nationalistic and democratic imperatives drove many South Vietnamese to join the NLF.
        
        HCM was seen as the 'spiritual father' of the Viet Minh movement and acted as a major influence of the NLF.
        
        The NLF resistance veterans were moved nationalism, rather than any ideological focus, but there were some committed to communism and the creation of a reunified communist Vietnam.
        
        The relationship between nationalism and communism in the NLF was supportive and Symbiotic. Many members were primarily nationalists, rejecting American imperialism and Vietnamese lackies of imperialism, like Diem and his followers.
        
        This gave affinity between nationalists and communists, who also saw the USA as a shared enemy of Vietnam.
        
        NLF leader was Nguyen Huu Tho. Figurehead; the real leadership was in the North - HCM.
        
        It is argued that the NLF was a way by which the communists could infiltrate and influence groups in the South with ease - it was an agent of communisation.
        
        The NLF was presented as a nationalist/resistance movement to not be in breach of Geneva Conference agreements, which banned the North from placing its own forces in the South.
        
        NLF political political manifesto (10 pp) reflected the wide ranging support the NLF held in the South, through its anti-imperialist focus. The programme also appealed to intellectuals, student, and the middle and rural working clases too.
      - The HCM Trail:
        
        A complex web of tails allowing members of the NLF to travel into SV. It consisted of dummy routes to confuse the Americans. It also served as a route for weapons, food and equipment supply.
        
        Ran across Laos and Cambodia borders dominated by jungles. Estimated that the trail was around 1000 KM long in total with all parts considered. In some places it was 80 km wide.
        
        It took six months to travel in the early days of the VW, though this developed and by 1970, the journey required only six weeks for experienced, fit soldiers.
        
        Impossible to identify from the air, Us failed to make the trail ineffective no matter how much they bombed it.
        
        The main danger of travelling the trail was malaria and disease. Early on, as many as 10 percent died of disease.
        
        Dec 1963: 5000 troops assigned to maintain trail.
        
        10000 men and women died on the trail.
        
        NLF get 54 tons of supplies a day through HCM trail.
        Constantly evolving.
        
        At times, as many as 20,000 soldiers a month came South from Hanoi.
        
        US attempted to counter by building large bases nearby ex. Khe Sanh. Base patrols sent out to intercept. Limited as trail fluid and could be manipulated, whereas US bases static, unmoving.
        
        Another response from Us was to use defoliants. Succeeded in destroying large areas of jungle. Proved too great a task to render trail useless.
  - - - Gradually shifted to 'doctrine of credibility'. Prioritised limiting psychological effect of newly created communist states in America's international rep rather than attempting to contain the loss of territory.
        
        Vietnam became a testing ground for strategies to prove the USA was strong and willing to use its power to actively counter communist threat rather than appease it.
    - - Kennedy kept Dulles as chief FP adviser and appointed a new Secretary of Defence, Robert McNamara.
        
        Civil was in Laos, both US and USSR supported opposing sides. NLF sustained supply route through Laos into SV.
        
        Kennedy responded by using CIA to support anti-communist forces without consulting Congress.
        
        Unofficially, US B52 bombers attacked communist positions in central and eastern Laos during 62-63.
        
        Autumn 62, US officials estimate that Diem controlled only 49% of SV, but NLF held 9% of rest of unruly country.
        
        Kennedy in impossible situation.
        
        US continued to support Diem;s regime in South although he became increasingly unpopular.
        
        Were only 800 military advisers in SV and Kennedy did not want the USA to dinf themselves in the same position that the Drench had by 1954.
        
        Kennedy facing two opposing groups of advisers:
        Joint Chiefs of Staff = hawks. Wanted strong military support for SV. Maxwell Taylor's report NOV 1961 - suggests 8000 ground troops.
        Other side 'doves'. Ex. J.K.Galbraith, US ambassador to India who wanted phased withdrawal form Vietnam using similar strategy to that in Laos. 1962: William Averell Harriman, US envoy to USSR, responsible for gaining Soviet agreement to the policy of neutralisation of Laos, where a coalition of communist and non-communists had been established and Kennedy wanted to achieve something similar.
        But guerrillas in South would need to be defeated first, so neutralisation impossible.
    - - US advisers suggested use of herbicides to clear jungle in areas open to insurgency. Meant to cut off the VietCong from food and cover. Agent Orange and Napalm two examples of this.
        
        Innocent villagers ones to suffer, as it was impossible to identify insurgents. Even if they were located and cleared, as soon as the US forces were airlifted back to bases, the insurgents would then return.
        
        SHP alienated rural peasants who then often chose to back NLF.
        
        Neither China nor USSR wanted the conflict to escalate.
        
        Diem mistrusted Generals who might gain reputation so did not promote ability. Forces gained rep for inefficiency.
        
        Battle of Ap Bac, 2000 ARVN troops were ordered not to advance or attack 350 VietCong and even refused to recover US helicopter pilots who had been shot down. Seen as turning point for Vietcong, portrayed by US in negative view. NLF then follow this by destroying 2600 of 3700 SHP.