Please enable JavaScript.
Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.
Mindmap of Chapter 4--Syntax Made by 赵淑敏 20英师3班**, Words that can take CP…
Mindmap of Chapter 4--
Syntax
Made by 赵淑敏 20英师3班**
Phrase structure rule
Grammatical mechanism that
regulates the arrangement
of elements that make up a phrase is called phrase structure rule. （The arrow can be read as
“consists of”or “branches into”
.）
VP——(Qual) V (NP)
AP——(Deg) A (PP)
NP——(Det) N (PP)
PP——(Deg) P (NP)
XP rule
The XP rule: XP——(specifier) X ( complement)
XP
X head
Specifier
Complement
Coordination rule
Some structures are formed by
joining two or more elements of the same type
with the help of a conjunction are called
coordinate structures
and this phenomenon is known as
coordination
.
a category at any level
(a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.
coordinated categories must be of the
same type
there is
no limit on the number of coordinated categories
that can appear prior to the conjunction.
the
category type
of the
coordinate phrase
is
identical
to the category type of the
elements being conjoined.
X——X * Con X
In this rule the symbol X stands for “
a category at any structural level
”, indicating that either an X or an XP can be coordinated.
The
asterisk ( * )
-indicates that one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con ( = conjunction).
Sentences (The S Rule)
The
largest unit of syntactic
analysis——the sentence (shortened as S).
The S rule: S一NP VP
... take an abstract category
inflection
( dubbed “Infl) as their
heads
, which indicates the
sentence's tense and agreement.
Like other phrases , Infl
takes an NP( the subject ) as its specifier and a VP category as its complement.
Sentence head - Infl position can be taken by an abstract category encoded in a verb which indicates the
sentence's tense or an auxiliary
Phrase elements
Complement
Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about
entities and locations
whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the
right
of the head in English.
The information about a word's complement is included in the head and termed
subcategorization
.
The XP Rule (revised)
XP——(Specifier) X (Complement*)
A
sentence-like construction
functions as a complement
The
sentence
introduced by the complementizer is called
a complement clause
.
a complement phrase ( shortened as CP)
the construction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called
matrix clause
.
Words which
introduce
the sentence complement are termed
complementizers
( shortened as Cs).
Modifier
specifies
optionally
expressible properties of heads
AP——precedes the head
PP——follows the head
AdvP——precedes or follows the head
XP——
(Spec) (Mod) X ( Complement*) ( Mod)
Specifier
Semantically
they help make more
precise
the meaning of the head.
Syntactically
,they typically mark a phrase
boundary
. In English specifiers occur at the left boundary of their respective phrases.
What is syntax?
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies
the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
Categories
Word-level categories
Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called
syntactic categories
, which can generally substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality.
The most
central categories to the syntactic study
are the
word-level categories
.
In traditional grammar
only about
eight categories
(called parts of speech) are recognized;
current theories of grammar
add non-traditional categories as
determiner ( Det), degree words (Deg) and qualifier (Qua)
major lexical categories
play a very important role in sentence formation.
often the
heads
found which phrases are built.
Preposition ( P)
Adjective(A)
Verb (V)
Noun(N)
minor lexical categories
Degree words (Deg)
Qualifier (Qual)
Determiner (Det)
Auxiliary (Aux)
Conjunction (Con)
Three criteria to determine a word's category
meaning
However, a word's category can not be
told straightforward from its meaning.
Some words such as love and hate which indicate actions tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.
Words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories.
Nouns such as dilemma.and friendship do not concretely reveal their entities.
distribution
That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.
inflection
Words of different categories take different inflections.
Phrase categories and their structures
Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category
are called
phrases
,
the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.
The most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories
verb phrase ( VP)
adjective phrase ( AP)
noun phrase ( NP)
prepositional phrase ( PP)
Phrases can consist of just one word
, but more often they contain other elements as well.
Whether formed of one or more than one word, they consist of two levels,
phrase level and word level
Phrases that are formed of
more than one word
usually contain the following elements
specifier
The words
on the left side of the heads
are said to function as specifiers.
complement
The words
on the right side of the heads
are complements.
head
The word around which a phrase is formed
is termed head.
Category refers to a group of linguistic items which
fulfill the same or similar functions
in a particular language such as a sentence , a noun phrase or a verb.
Words that can take CP
Adjectives
Prepositions
Nouns
Inflp(=S)
NP
Infl
VP