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U3 (2. FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE, 3. LANGUAGE IN USE, 1. THE COMMUNICATION…

- - - - Towards the Speaker in 1st Person
    - - Towards the Listener in 2nd Person
    - - Towards the Rest of reality in 3rd Person
  - - - INTERPERSONAL
        
        to establish & maintain an ongoing exchange of information: to establish social relationships, cooperate, negotiate, make requests & give orders
      - TEXTUAL
        
        the information as text in context at a lexico-grammatical level: to link complex ideas together into cohesive and coherent texts so that others can follow our train of thought
      - IDEATIONAL
        
        to represent our experience of phenomena in the world: to talk about people, things, actions & events
    - - Instrumental
        
        to express intentions, desires & needs
      - Regulatory
        
        to give rules, instructions, orders, suggestions
      - Interactional
        
        greeting, leave-taking, thanking, good wishes & excusing
      - Personal
        
        to talk about youself & express your feelings
      - Heuristic
        
        asking questions
      - Imaginative
        
        supposing/guessing, hypothesizing & creating sounds & images
      - Informative
        
        affirmative & negative statements
  - - - Sender (1st Person): reflects the speaker's attitude /feelings/moods towards the content of the message by means of emphatic speech (Interjections & Expletives), intonation, loudness, pace (B: EXPRESSIVE)
      - (expressive function)
    - - Context (3rd Person): to convey information in an objective way, highlighting the informational content of an utterance & not focusing on speaker/listener (B: REPRESENTATIVE)
      - (informative function)
    - - Channel: to establish a social connection btw two speakers (social function of language: not to give meaningful information)
      - (social function)
    - - Code: to talk about the language itself (its features, word definitions) and to clarify/correct the way it is used (clarifying ambiguity)
      - (language analysis function)
    - - Receiver (2nd Person): to persuade & influence others through commands & requests, to get the attention or a reaction from the addressee (B: APELLATIVE)
      - (vocative/imperative function)
    - - Message: to focus on the message for its own sake: a decorative/aesthetic function of language. It is based on phonetic properties & explained by a universal desire to exploit the acoustic potential of language
      - (aesthetic function)
  - - - Pragmatic
        
        The practical use of language (spoken or written)
      - Ritual
        
        The use of language associated to ceremonies
- - - - Parole (individual use) what people say, which varies to some extent from individual to individual & from situation to situation. From om examples of parole, the language rules of a social group can be extracted (langue)
    - - Langue (the language system): the language rules of a social group outside of individual use: the systematic structures underlying individual utterances, which make it possible for people to understand & be understood by others
  - - - One's implicit or explicit knowledge of the language system (the internalized, abstract/idealized “system of rules”)
        
        Linguistic knowledge is separated from sociocultural features
      - (knowledge)
    - - The actual individual production of utterances in actual communicative situations & the knowledge of the rules of language use
        
        It did not properly reflect the underlying knowledge (competence), because of its many imperfections at the level of errors & hesitations
      - (use)
  - - - CC: The knowledge a speaker has of the rules of grammar & their use in socially appropriate circumstances
  - - - Sociolinguistic ~
        
        The appropiate use of language in particular contexts for specific purposes
      - Discourse ~
        
        How to combine forms/structures and meanings to produce unified, meaningful communicative messages/texts (through cohesion in form & coherence in meaning)
      - Strategic ~
        
        Verbal & non-verbal communication strategies to 1) compensate for breakdowns, 2) to enhance effectiveness of communication
      - Grammatical ~
        
        Linguistic code
        
        Mastery over the purely linguistic aspects of the language code itself, verbal & non-verbal, oral & written, producion & comprehension
        
        Comprising the 4 macro-skills at the level of Morphology, Phonology, Syntax, Lexis, Orthography & Semantics
    - - Knowing a language is not only knowing its grammar but also knowing how to use it, with whom, and in what situations. Therefore: (1) the underlying knowledge of the system and (2) the skills needed for communicating
        
        Knowledge
        
        what one knows, consciously or not, about the language & about communicative language use
        
        Skills
        
        how well one can perform this knowledge in actual communication
    - - The realization/manifestation of such knowledge & skills (which make up competence) in actual communication under limiting psychological & environmental conditions (memory & perceptual constraints, fatigue, nervousness, distractions, etc.)
- - - - Duality of patterning
        
        Meaningful messages are made up of distinct smaller meaningful units (words/utterances) which in turn are made up of distinct smaller meaningful units (morphemes/phonemes)
      - Productivity
        
        Infinite number of possible messages to be expressed
      - Arbitrariness
        
        No intrinsic/logical connection btw sound forms & what they refer to (language & reality)
      - Interchangeability of messages
        
        Possibility to reproduce messages to say anything in any context: anything one can hear, one can say
      - Traditional transmission
        
        Language is handed down from one generation to the next by a process of teaching & learning
      - Our auditory-vocal channel
        
        Exclusive to humans
      - Displacement
        
        Talk about events remote in space or time
    - - Uncertain
        
        We do not really know when language emerged as specific and distinctive human characteristic. We assume that speech appeared long before the written form. However, there is no evidence of such hypothesis
      - Divine Origin
        
        All religions in one way or another attribute language to the gracious kindness of their God. However, research has shown that children been raised deprived from any contact with human language will inevitably lack speech.
      - Natural Sound hypothesis
        
        In its origins, language was an imitation of natural sounds men and women were exposed to, which would explain that all languages have Onomatopoeias. Others have argued that it might be in the sounds uttered by people when carrying out physical tasks
      - Body Language
        
        Body language would be a first step in the emergence of language. Certain gestures performed with our mouths in connection with other physical gestures would be the source that would trigger language as such.
      - Physiological & Genetic evolution of our Vocal Tract
        
        The physiological and genetic evolution of our vocal tract would be essential in the emergence of language. As language developed in human beings, they incorporated their own versions of those initial natural sounds they imitated, and incorporated other sounds to mark their emotional status, which would be followed by a varied body language
        
        For human beings it is essential to
        communicate verbally, expressing thoughts with words by using differentiated sounds
      - c) SEMIOTICS
        
        A much wider domain of enquiry of which language is part: the analysis of linguistic & non-linguistic signs in communication processes in general. It deals with patterned human communication in all its modes and in all contexts
        
        Verbal
        
        Writing
        
        Linguistic units > Words
        
        This highly sophisticated organ exclusive to humans consists of consonants & vowels which are part of our vocal apparatus as a limited set of speech sounds. It enables us to use our language in a very economical way for a virtually infinite production of linguistic units. Linguistically speaking, the distinctive speech sounds are called phonemes (meaningless by themselves). However, we can assemble and reassemble them into larger linguistic units, commonly called words. Despite our limited capacity to produce new phonemes/speech sounds, our capacity to produce vocabulary is unlimited
        
        Unlimited
        
        Code: Language
        
        Speech
        
        Limited
        
        Speech sounds > Phonemes
        
        Non-Verbal
        
        Visual & Tactile modes
        
        get the message by
        
        Sound (auditory-vocal)
        
        Speech, Musical sounds, Paralanguage
        
        Touch (tactile)
        
        Braille alphabet of the blind, Secret codes
        
        Sight (visual)
        
        Writing, Sign languages, Morse, Traffic lights
- - - - Audition
        
        Receiver: acoustic message > mental signs
      - Phonation
        
        Sender: mental signs > acoustic shape
      - 2 processes (mental representations - acoustic signals)
    - - Communication is linear: two people communicate in a way that a message is conveyed from one person to another
    - - The participants are both simultaneously active: they not only listen, but may answer or show some reaction
  - - - Emotive
    - - Conative
    - - Referential
    - - Phatic
    - - Metalinguistic
    - - Poetic
- - - - To convey the intended message despite lacking competence (linguistic limitations), by finding alternative ways to express ideas or using simplified language (thus to compensate for gaps in their language ability)
        
        Approximation
        
        Similar word
        
        Circumlocution
        
        Describing
        
        Word coinage
        
        New word
        
        Literal translation
        
        Code switching
        
        Appeal for assistance
        
        Asks the correct form
        
        Mime
        
        Non-linguistic means
      - /Achievement
      - Instead of using the appropriate word:
    - - To avoid certain linguistic structures or topics when communicating in the L2, in order to maintain communication while minimizing the risk of errors or misunderstanding
        
        Topic avoidance
        
        Message abandonment
        
        Stopping mid-utterance
      - /Stalling
    - - To gain extra time to process information & formulate a response during communication (when learners need a moment to think, understand a complex question, or retrieve vocabulary or grammar structures)
        
        Repetition
        
        Self- & other-
        
        Fillers
        
        To fill pauses & gain time to think
    - - To manage conversations, negotiate meaning, & maintain social relationships during communication, thus helping learners engage in effective and meaningful communication with others
        
        Appeal for help
        
        Directly or not
        
        Negotiation of meaning
        
        Comprehension check
        
        Interpretive summary
        
        Misunderstanding request
    - - To monitor & evaluate their own language production during communication, in order to become aware of their errors & make conscious efforts to correct or modify their speech in real-time
        
        Self-initiated repair
        
        Correcting yourself
        
        Self-rephrasing
        
        Repeats a modified version of a phrase