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Education Topic 4 (flashcards done) - Coggle Diagram
Education Topic 4 (flashcards done)
External and Internal Factors
External
Changes in Women's Employment
Mitsos and Browne 1998 x
highlighted how the growing Service Sector / Economy has created more 'feminised' career opportunities for women
e.g. Health Care, Hospitality, Teaching, Clerical, Child Care Professions
increased employment 53% in 1971 to 67% in 2013
increased pay
Francis 2001
interviewed girls about their career aspirations and concluded that due to increased employment opportunities:
females have become extremely ambitious and aim for 'high professions' such as Doctors and Solicitors
1970 Equal Pay Act
makes it illegal to pay one sex more than another for work of equal value
1975 Sex Discrimination Act
Prohibits sex discrimination in the workplace
changing Social Attitudes, Perceptions and ambition
Sue Sharpe x
1976 - 'Just Like A Girl'
found from interviews that women's priorities lay in settling down with a man and having children
1994
contradicted her original study as she found that women's priorities no longer were centred around love, marriage, children and instead were geared towards education and career
Wilkinson
agrees with Sharpe's findings
young women have experienced a
'gender quake'
in their attitudes and expectations
girls now have a higher attainment than boys at school and there is greater stress on gender equality, so girls have more educational opportunities
Beck and Beck-Gernsheim 2001
link individualism and modernity, with female ambition for independence through having a career
they are able to gain recognition and economic self-sufficiency
Changes in the Family (including socialisation) x
mor female-headed lone-parent families, means girls see them as financially independent role-models
to get good jobs, you need good qualification
socialised to expect a life of high qualifications and independence
trends because of this
increase in divorce rate
increase in Lone-Parent Families - usually female headed
increases in cohabitation
decline in marriage rate
decline in birth rate
decreasing family size
the impact of Feminism
has improved the rights of women as well as raising expectations and self-esteem / motivation of women
women are no longer strictly bound to the 'Mother / Housewife Role'
McRobbie 1994 x
comparison of girls' magazines on the 1970s and the 1990s
1970s magazines (e.g. Jackie) - emphasised the importance of marriage
nowadays magazines - images of assertive, independent women
highlights the importance of self-esteem and personal choice
Internal
The Curriculum
the ERA made it so that boys and girls study the same subjects - more meritocratic
Selection and League Tables
1988 Education Reform Act introduced 'Market Principles' into education
aim was to instigate competition between schools in order to
'Raise Standards'
competition between schools -
Marketisation
girls do better
so are more desirable students
this crates a positive SFP as girls go to higher achieving schools and therefore do better -
Jackson 1998
boys do worse than girls
so are seen as obstacles to school getting more funding, as they have more behavioural problems and are more likely to be excluded -
Robert Slee
Pupil Subcultures and Identities
link to the feminise identity and anti-school subcultures due to W/C habitus and culture
Teacher attention, stereotyping and Labelling
Dale Spender 1983 x
found that boys actually received more attention in the classroom than girls, however this can be because:
Francis 2001
found that this was because boys were more likely to be disciplined than girls
therefore the attention is not always productive
Link to Anti-School Subcultures
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Link to Unequal Access to Classroom Knowledge
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Groddal 1994
boys are more likely to attract the teacher's attention as they are more boisterous and disruptive
Link to Anti-School Subcultures
Hargreaves 1976, Lacey 1970, Ball 1981
Swann 1998
boys dominate discussions whereas girls are more likely to work quietly cooperating
this may be why teachers respond positively towards girls = positive SFP = increased self-esteem and achievement
Link to Labelling Theory and the Halo Effect
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link to The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
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Most research shows that labelling and SFP will have most negative effects on W/C and black boys
Hartley and Sutton 2011 x
studied 140 children in 3 Kent primary schools
children were assigned to 1 of 2 groups:
1 group was told that boys do not perform as well as girls
in this group the boys performed significantly worse, while girls' overall performace was similar in both groups
the other group were not told anything
both groups were tested in maths, reading and writing
suggest that boys underachievement nationally could be explained, in part, by negative stereotypes, including those held by teachers, generating SFP
Equal Opportunities Policies
due to the feminist movement many sociologists have argued that the Ed. System has
become much more 'Gender-Aware'
policies based on gender equality are far more
'mainstream'
and because of this gender stereotyping has decreased its effect / becoming less of a problem
National Curriculum
created a situation where males and females
study the same core subjects
created a
more meritocratic
Ed. System where both genders compete on equal terms
1988 Education Reform Act
introduced the
national Curriculum
policies to increase female achievement
GIST
WISE
Jo Boaler x
equal opportunities remove barriers, so education becomes more meritocratic - hard working girls therefore achieve more than boys
Positive Role Models
more and more women are taking up positions of higher responsibility within the education system - particularly head teacher roles
female pupils now have more positive role models
within
the education system (and externally) which may help explain their educational achievement
it is often suggested that Primary Schooling is a 'Feminised' system which may instil notions of 'Gender Domain' within young pupils from a very early age
GCSEs and Coursework
Gorard 2005 x
the 'Gender Gap' in success rates increased dramatically in the academic year to 1989.
this coincides with the introduction of GCSEs which brought with it more coursework based assignments
however coursework only accounts for a small proportion of overall marks
Mitsos and Browne 1998 x
support this view by suggesting that coursework suits girls better because:
girls are more organised than boys
early socialisation - girls are encouraged to be neat and tidy
girls develop better speaking and listening skills - particularly useful for oral exams
girls take more care in presentation
girls spend more time on their work
EVALUATION
Liberal Feminists
girls are making improvements but the work needs to be continued
meritocracy is developing equal opportunities
Radical Feminists
the educational system remains patriarchal
e.g. sexual harassment of girls continues in schools
education system limits girls subject choices and careers
secondary head teachers are still more likely to be men
Identity, class and Girls' Achievement
Archer x
girls gain symbolic capital by:
Boyfriends
Boyfriends = Symbolic Capital
could lead to girls
losing interest
in going to university and studying
'masculine'
subjects such as science
instead these girls aspired to
'settle down'
, having children and working locally in W/C feminine jobs such as child care
Being Loud
some girls adopted 'loud' feminine identities that often led them to be outspoken, assertive and independent
this
conflicted
with the
'ideal female pupil'
and could lead to an
anti-school sub-culture
Hyper-heterosexual Feminine Identities
girls
achieve status
from their peers by adhering to the identity of spending a considerable amount of time and effort on their appearance
however by adhering to this identity, they are brought into conflict with the school
this led to the school 'othering' the girls - defining them as 'not one of us' - incapable of educational success and thus less worthy of respect
Archer refers to this as
Symbolic Violence
the harm done by denying someone of symbolic capital - e.g. by defining their culture as worthless
Symbolic Capital
according to feminists, the reason why there is a difference in achievement is because of the conflict between the W/C girls' feminine identities and the values of the school
to combat this the girls in the study used
strategies
to create a
value sense of self
including: adopting a
hyper-heterosexual feminine identity
, having a
boyfriend
, and being
'loud'
completed a study on the difference in female achievement due to social class values
looked specifically at how girls gain symbolic capital with their friends from performing their W/C feminine identities, which brings them into conflict with the school ideals
a lack of interest in uni can also be explained by a desire to live at home because of
economic necessity
and their
W/C habitus - staying local
therefore the W/C identity results in self-exclusion from elite universities, which limits their success and future earning potential
Working Class Dilemma
W/C girls have two options; to gain symbolic capital or educational capital
Symbolic capital
W/C girls can
gain Symbolic Capital
from peers by
conforming to a hyper-heterosexual feminine identity
Educational Capital
W/C girls can
gain Educational Capital
by
rejecting the W/C identity
and
conforming
to the school's notions of a
respectable, ideal feminine female pupil
Successful Working Class Girl
Evans x
found that girls did want to achieve, but not for themselves, but instead for their families and to give something back
because of this their motivation reflected the caring attributes of their W/C feminine identities
Skegg
noted that 'caring' is a crucial part of their W/C feminine identity and that the girls in
Evan's
study wished to remain at home and contribute to their families
KEY FACTS
until the 1980s girl under achievement was the main concern
now boys underachievement is more of a concern
in the 1990s girls started to outperform boys, in all areas of the education system
girls get better results in all GCSEs, although boys are now catching up
GCSE English
-
70%
of girls get A
-C, whereas boys git
54%
in 2014*
more girls go to sixth form and uni than boys
girls now more likely to get more and higher A levels
in
2014
, women made up
57%
of undergraduates
girls generally only outperform boys from the same social class and ethnic background
Perry and Francis x
found that girls on FSM, did less well than both boys and girls not on FSM
Gender and Subject choice
gender identity
understanding of self through subcultures, media, family and friends
Skelton x
suggested that males and females may tend to be drawn to different subjects due to their own ideas of what is appropriate for their gender identity
children act out these deep-seated gender roles often without being consciously aware of them
subject guidance
careers advice that's given is rarely unbiased because of the impact of gendered occupational structure
also impacted by the advisor's socialisation which is often used to channel students into stereotypical subjects
biggest impact is upon vocational choices
perception of subjects
teacher and students behave in ways that reflect dominant ideas about masculinity and femininity
Colley (1998) x
suggested that gender perceptions of different subjects are important influences on subject choice
suggested that by changing some of the curriculum of some subjects, its gender identity can be altered and therefore those who study it
arts and humanities seen by students as feminine
science and technology seen as masculine
Mitsos
interviewed Y11 boys and found that they have an unfavourable response to English as it is seen as a girl subject
Paechter
gendering of subject choices
in PE girls appear 'unfeminine' and 'butch' and were stigmatized as such
Kelly (1987) x
boys dominate science classrooms
grabbing equipment first, ridiculing the girls questions
socialisation
girls are given toys that encourage caregiving and boys to keep active
Lobban (1974)
Gender stereotyping in children's books
Best
repeated similar research to Lobban in 1993 (19 years later), and identified that very little change had happened
how does school construct our gender identities?
Connell (1995) x
the following experiences reinforce 'hegemonic masculinity'
The male gaze
sexually objectifying girls by looking them up and down, making judgements about their appearance
Mac and Ghaill
the male gaze is a form of surveillance
a way for boys to prove their masculinity and is often combined with telling stories of their sexual conquests
reinforces the hegemonic masculinity and devalues femininity
male peer groups
reporduces a range of different class based masculine gender identities
Mac an Ghaill
study of W/C boys
working class 'macho lad's were dismissive of other W/C boys who worked hard, referring to them as 'dickhead achievers'.
where as M/C boys gave the image of "effortless achievement" - even is this was a lie
Verbal abuse
Connell (1995)
dominant gender and sexual identities are reinforced through a rich vocabulary of abuse
Paetcher
suggested that pupils police each others sexual identities through name calling
e.g. "Gay, queer, lexxie"
Parker (1996)
negative labels were given very easily - "slags, gay, slut"
if a boy is friendly to a girl the label given can have no actual relation to the pupil's sexual behaviour but still be given quickly
these labels are used as a way to reinforce gender norms and identities
Double standards
moral standards are different for different groups, particularly the standards of sexual morality
Sue Lees (1993)
boys boast about their sexual exploits but when girls are overly sexual or dress inappropriately, they are "slags"
boys - their sexual conquest is approved by peers and ignored by male teachers
patriarchal ideology, justified male dominance and devalues women
"the dominance of a heterosexual masculine identity and the subordination of female and gay identities"
subject choice: University
far more boys study maths, science and technology subjects at higher education
girls are more likely to study subjects like Psychology, Linguistic, History, Social Sciences or employment related degrees
e.g., Education, Social Work
60% of women are clustered into 10% of professions
subject choice at university has a dramatic effect on the future of employment for men and women
Skelton et al x
boys are much more likely to pursue science based subjects as well as technology and technical based subjects
girls are much more likely to opt for 'caring' subjects such as food technology and health and social care
girls tend to take more soft subjects
examples
A level Computing 2016 - just under 10% of those taking it are female
a level Performing/Expressive Arts 2016 - around 10% of those taking are male
suggested reasons for gender gap in subject choice
peer preassure
gender identity
gender socialisation
subject image
subject counselling
being explained in main branches
peer pressure
wanting to stay in friendship groups and avoid conflict or being bullied
Boys' Underachievement
Boys and Literacy
mothers are more likely to read to their children making it seem like a feminine activity - less interest
because of the feminised culture around reading, research suggests that
boys stop being interested in reading from around the age of 8
Oakhill et al x
boys interest in content of books influences their ability to understand and grasp of it, therefore, they have less motivation.
it is suggested that girls are not affected by this and can read a wide range of subjects with flexibility
girls have a 'bedroom culture' of staying in and talking with friends - better communication and literacy skills
boys are more likely to play computer games or football - less development of different communication and literacy skills
DCSF (2007)
argues that the 'Gender gap' is the result of poor literacy amongst males
Feminisation of Education
mothers are more likely to read to their children making it seem like a feminine activity
Sewell 2006 x
education has become 'feminised' and do not nurture masculine traits competitiveness and leadership
instead it celebrates qualities such as attentiveness in class and methodical working
thinks coursework should be replaced with exams and emphasis in outdoor adventure education within the curriculum
Laddish Subculture
Epstein 1998 x
boys are likely to be called
'Sissie' or 'Swots'
, as well as be subject to
homophobic harassment
if they are
seen to be doing their work
W/C reject school to avoid being seen as
'gay'
, as W/C culture is equated to being tough and doing manual work
Forde et al 2006
peer pressure to reject education, led to
disruptive behaviour
Francis 2001
argue that W/C boys were more concerned than girls about being labelled as a
'swot'
- as they saw it as a threat to their masculinity
Shortage of Male Primary School Teachers
only
14%
of Primary School teachers are male
Yougov 2007 x
39%
of 8-11 year-olds have no male teachers
in a survey of boys, many said that the presence of male teachers made them behave better, and
42%
said that they worker harder
Becky Francis 2006
found that
3/4 of 7-8 year olds
said that they do not care about what sex their teacher is
Barbara Read 2008 x
critical of the claim that primary school is feminised and that only males can discipline males effectively
in her study she looked at the language teachers used and found two discourses
disciplinarian discourse (linked to males)
however, she found that both genders use disciplinarian discourse
- therefore going against Sewell's claim that Ed. is too feminized
liberal discourse (linked to females)
Crisis of Masculinity
manufacturing 'Masculine' jobs have moved abroad and thus male employment opportunities have been hampered
Mac an Ghaill 1994 x
decline in manufacture industries and the rise in long term unemployment, means they're
less likely to occupy these roles
today, the economy increasingly offers
unsuitable roles for these working class males
- creating
less ambition and drive
therefore they may feel that qualifications are a
waste of time / see limited opportunities
-
therefore they don't try
males are
socialised
to see their future as
breadwinners
Mitsos and Browne 1998
suggest that this lack of traditional male jobs has crated a
'Crisis of Masculinity'
globalisation and the movement of jobs has undermined W/C male's motivation and belief that they can get a proper job
1996 UK's Chief Inspector of Schools
called boys' underachievement: "one of the most disturbing problems facing the education system"
this is because:
young W/C men who leave school with relatively few qualifications have now become a 'problem' for society
examination performance is increasingly central to policy, with Britain ranked against other countries, and failing students mattering more
Moral Panic
critics of feminism
argue that policies to promote girls' education are no longer needed - they argue that the interests of girls are at the
expense of boys' achievement
according to
feminist Ringrose 2013 x
, this view has caused a moral panic that W/C boys are failing, which has resulted in a
policy shift of focusing on raising boys' achievement
this has had two negative effects:
narrowing equal opportunities policy down to
'failing boys'
, ignoring disadvantaged W/C boys and minorities
focusing solely on achievement gap, ignoring other problems faced by girls
Osler 2006
agrees that the focus on underachievement in boys has led to girls being disadvantaged and ignored
male disengagement from school is
loud and attention grabbing
whilst girls disengage
quietly
mentoring policies
ignore the issue of exclusions among girls
, which are
increasing rapidly
- focusing instead on
black boys
GENDER, CLASS, IDENTITY
McVeigh
argues that gender achievement is more similar than different, especially when compared to the gap between ethnicity or class,
which at GCSE is three times larger than gender
M/C girls 44 points ahead of W/C girls
Connolly 2006
suggests that it is the
combination of class, ethnicity and gender
that has the effect, not one sole identity