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BIOPSYCHOLOGY, SUMMARY... brain has 2 hemispheres which are connected by…

- - - - 1) sympathetic nervous system
        
        increases bodily activity
      - 2) parasympathetic nervous system
        
        maintains or decreases bodily activities
  - - - Pituitary gland = 'master gland' - controls /
        regulates release of hormones
      - Adrenal gland = facilitates release of
        adrenaline and part of the 'fight or flight' response
      - Testes = release of testosterone
      - Ovaries = release of oestrogen and
        progesterone
    - - 1) hypothalamus recognises a threat
        
        through sensory receptors in the PNS
      - 2) hypothalamus sends a message to
        the adrenal gland which triggers the release
        of adrenaline from the adrenal medulla
      - 3) adrenaline is send to the endocrine
        system and noradrenaline to the brain
      - physical changes...
        
        increased heart rate = speed up blood flow
        and improve spread of adrenaline
        
        faster breathing rate = increase oxygen intake
        
        muscle tension = improve reaction time and speed
        
        pupil dilation = improved vision
        
        sweat production = facilitate temp regulation
        
        reduced functioning of digestive system = save energy for prioritised functions
      - Evaluation:
        'biological structures are 'tools' to make behaviour
        happen rather than being the cause
        cause and effect cannot be established
        reductionist - attempts to reduce human behaviour down to biological processes
        reliable - research is scientific and objective
- - - - 1) action potential travels down neuron
        and prompts release of neurotransmitters at
        the pre-synaptic terminal
      - 2) neurotransmitters released into
        the synaptic fluid (cleft) in the synapse
      - 3) neurotransmitters diffuse across the
        synaptic cleft and binds to receptors
        on the post-synaptic membrane
      - 4) electrical impulse then travels down
        the neuron to the next presynaptic
        terminal
      - 5) impulse continues to be transmitted on
    - - Excitatory potentials = increase the potential
        difference across the post-synaptic membrane =
        increased likelihood of neuron firing
      - Inhibitory potentials = reduce potential
        difference across postsynaptic membrane =
        reduced likelihood of neuron firing
- - - - when the right hemisphere deals with
        the left-hand side of the body - vice versa
        
        vision, taste, smell
    - - language processing:
        1) Broca's area
        2) Wernicke's area
        
        Broca's Area
        
        located in the left frontal lobe
        
        involved in language/speech production:
        
        Broca - 'Tan' understood spoken language
        but not produce coherent words
        
        post-mortem = lesion in left frontal lobe
        
        Broca's aphasia = damage to area
        (slow and inarticulate speech)
        
        Wernicke's area
        
        located in left temporal lobe
        
        involved in language processing/
        comprehension
        
        Wernicke - patients with lesions were able
        to speak but unable to comprehend language
        
        damage = 'Wernicke's aphasia' - unable
        to comprehend language / meaningless sentences
    - - 1) Recognising
        
        emotions
        
        Heller & Levy - photo shown in left =
        recognised dominant emotion
      - 2) Spatial relationships
      - 3) overall differences
        
        left hemisphere focuses on detail and the
        right focuses on overall patterns
  - - - 1)describe what you see
        
        right visual field = (processed by left
        hemisphere) could say what they saw -
        'language controls'
        
        left visual field = (processed by right
        hemisphere) could write the word using
        their left hand but not speak it -
        'visuospatial centre'
      - 2) tactile tests
        
        object in right hand = (processed by left
        hemisphere) could verbally describe what
        they felt
        
        Objects in left hand = (processed by right
        hemisphere) could not describe what they
        felt but could identify a similar object
      - 3) drawing tasks
        
        Right visual field = (processed by left
        hemisphere) right-hand would attempt to
        draw a picture BUT would not be clear
        
        Left visual field = (processed by right
        hemisphere) left hand would draw clear pictures -
        demonstrates superiority of right hemisphere
      - CONCLUSION...
        
        left hemisphere is dominant in terms of speech
        and language
        
        right hemisphere is dominant in visual-motor tasks
  - - - 3 anatomical ways the body can
        replace axon functioning...
        1) increased brain stimulation
        
        stimulate undamaged hemisphere =
        recovery can be improved
        
        2) axon sprouting
        
        replaces lost neurons (replaces function)
        
        3) denervation supersensitivity
        
        similar axons become aroused to a higher
        level to compensate for lost ones
        (however: pain can become over sensitive)
    - - MAGUIRE = London cab hippocampi
        
        large grey matter in mid-posterior hippocampus
        
        positive correlation between increasing grey matter and the longer individuals had been taxi drivers
        
        hippocampus = spatial awareness
        
        biologically reductionist
    - - through neural unmasking = 'dormant'
        synapses open connections to compensate
        for nearby damaged areas
        
        allows new connections to be activated
      - TAIJIRI - 'stem cells to rats after trauma
        
        clear development of neuron-like cells (in
        area of injury)
        
        brain can create new connections using neurons
        manufactured by stem cells
      - ELBERT - 'individual differences'
        
        ability can deterioirate with age
        
        capacity for neural reorganisation is greater in
        children = less effective in older brains
      - EVALUATION...
        
        application of findings to field of neurorehabilitation =
        uses motor therapy and electrical stimulation to counter
        negative effects following accidents
      - Factors affecting recovery...
        1) perseverance
        
        may not be trying so function
        appears to be lost
        
        2) physical exhaustion, stress, alcohol
        
        ability to use regained functions
        
        3) age
        
        deterioration of brain with old age
        
        affects speed / extent of recovery
        
        4) gender
        
        women recovery better from brain
        injury as function is not lateralized
- - - - 1) light (primary input) acts as an external cue
        2) light is detected by the eye - sends messages
        concerning brightness to SCN
        3) SCN uses info to coordinate activity of circadian system
        4) sleep / wake are also determined by 'homeostasis'
        5) homeostasis = need for sleep due to energy consumption
        
        MORNING
        
        SCN sends messaged to raise body temp,
        blood pressure and release hormones (melatonin)
        
        sharpest rise of blood pressure
        
        reduction in melatonin = feel awake
        
        EVENING
        
        SCN send messages to cool body temp,
        and sleep inducing hormones (melatonin) released
        
        body temp decreases and melatonin increases
  - - - RALPH - hamsters SCN
        
        removed out of hamsters with a 20 hour
        circadian cycle
        
        transplanted into rats with no abnormality
        
        rats circadian rhythm shortened to 20 hours
        
        suggests SNC is pivotal in body clocks
  - - - Stage 1 (5-15 mins)
        
        light sleep
        
        muscle activity slows down / heart rate
        
        occasional muscle twitching = easily awoken
      - Stage 2 (5-15 mins)
        
        sleep spindles occur on EEG
        
        breathing / heart rate slows
        
        slight decrease in body temp
      - Stage 3 (5-15 mins)
        
        EEG output shows slow delta waves =
        greater amplitude than earlier wave patterns
        
        deep sleep begins
        
        body relaxes
      - Stage 4 (40 mins)
        
        delta waves increase /slower activity level
        
        rhythmic breathing occurs
        
        limited muscle activity
        
        low metabolic rate
      - Stage 5 (REM sleep - 15 mins)
        
        rapid eye movement
        
        complete relaxation of trunk / muscles
        
        irregular breathing (rapid & shallow)
        
        brain activity speeds up = dreaming likely