SHALLICE & WARRINGTON - studied KF

• found STM for digits was poor but improved
  when he read to himself
• suggests another store for non-verbal sounds
• suggest one store to process visual info and one auditory

EVALUATION...

• case of Clive Wearing - (supporting) only
  episodic store was impaired - supports TULVING view was too simplistic
• TULVING - got participants to perform tasks
  while brains were scanned using PET (found episodic and semantic memories were recalled from
  prefrontal cortex) - suggests not one store
• psychologists can target certain kinds of
  memory to better peoples lives (e.g, episodic improved in old people) - shows its possible
  to separate / improve memory stores

Forgetting = failure to retrieve memories
Retrieval failure = material is stored in the LTM
but cannot be consciously recalled as a result of lack
of retrieval cues

effectiveness depends on:
1) how overloaded it is (number of cues associated)
2) how deep the processing
3) how well the cue fits the info associated

Context-dependent failure= external retrieval cues at the time of encoding that don't match those
present at recall
GODDEN & BADDELEY - divers learnt material either on dry land or underwater

• recall worse when occured in different context
• e.g, recalling words learned under water were
  recalled better when under water

State-dependent forgetting = internal retrieval cues at at the time of encoding don't match those
at recall
OVERTON - learnt material when either drunk or sober

• recall was worse when in a different internal state
• e.g, recalling info learned drunk while drunk was more successful than when sober

EVALUATION...

• many studies are lab based and not everyday
  tasks (abilty to performed learned skills isnt affected by state-dependent recall - riding a bike)
• CDF is seen as main form of forgetting due to
  the amount of research

EVALUATION...

• may be main reason why we forget info
  from the LTM - strictly controlled lab conditions
  increase validity
• findings may lack ecological validity - difficult to
  find conditions in real life (not an accurate depiction)
• encoding-specificity principle suffers from cylcical
  reasoning due to over-reliance on assumptions
  (may not always be the case of different cues at the
  time of encoding that causes retrieval failure)

BARTLETT - memories aren't accurate 'snapshots' of events but 'reconstructions'

• influenced by schemas

LOFTUS & PALMER - film clip of car crash

• gave speed estimates (based on leading questions)
• each group exposed to a different critical verb
• "Smashed" = speed estimate 8.7mph greater than
  those who heard "contacted"
  = leading questions suggest there is a correct answer

LOFTUS - 17% of participants watched
a video of a car ride

• "how fast car going when passing white barn?" (no
  white barn)
• recalled a barn a week later
  = post-event info can affect recall

The Yerkes-Dodson inverted-U hypothesis (IUH)

• relationship between arousal and performance
• sees moderate amounts of anxiety as improving
  the detail of accuracy of memory recall up to an optimal point

FREUD - anxiety hinders recall of memories

• saw forgetting as motivated by traumatic memories
• access to memories would be barred = protects
  individuals from emotional distress

EVALUATION...

• much research is lab based
• care must be taken with EWT studies of anxiety
  (studies could produce high levels of psychological
  harm)
• other factors could have a mediating effect (e.g,
  research indicates age can have an effect on EWT accuracy and personality factors)

EVALUATION...

• Inverted-U relationship is an over-simplified explanation
• weapon focus effect may be testing for effects of
  surprise rather than anxiety
• significant ethical issues associated with exposing
  participants to distressing images of a car crash (breaches BPS guidelines)
• real-life studies are susceptible to the biasing effect of extraneous variables which have not been
  controlled

1) Report everything

• even info that has little relevance or
  that is seen as incomplete
• acting as a 'cue'

2) Reinstate the context

• recall both environmental and emotional
  context of event e.g, weather

KOHNKEN - meta-analysis of 55 studies
comparing CI to a standard police interview (SPI)

• found CI produced more accurate detail
• recall was enhanced when witnesses were
  personally involved in event being witnessed
• amount of correct detail produced seemed to decline the longer the CI was conducted

EVALUATION...

• success calls for it to be used by other
  organisations (situations where accuracy of
  memory recall is important)
• CI has little practical value - time-consuming and
  requires specialist skills
• prone to producing confabulations (recall of
  incorrect items)
• MEMON - officers believe 'change of perspective' misleads witnesses into speculation