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Approaches, ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGY WUNDT - established first psychology…

- - - - Oedipus complex = boys
        
        sexual feelings for mother
        
        father seen as a rival (threatening)
        
        deveops 'castration anxiety'
        
        befriends father to reduce anxiety (identification)
        
        no father = homosexuality
      - Electra complex = girls
        
        sexual feelings for father
        
        penis envy for males
        
        desire not filled = desire for baby
- - - - Self-concept = the way you see yourself
        
        low self-esteem = poor self-concept
        
        distorted view of themselves
      - Ideal self = self you wish to be
        
        aiming towards
      - Real self = who you actually are
        
        subjective experience
      - incongruence = too large a gap between the
        self and ideal self
        (cannot achieve self-actualisation)
        
        important part of achieving 'congruence' is
        unconditional positive regard
        (someone has to be loved for who they are by someone else)
        
        Rogers argues from a therapist
  - - - aims to reduce gap between self and
        ideal self = increasing congruence
      - views a good therapist as being open,
        genuine, and providing unconditional
        positive regard
      - therapists view patients as 'experts' of
        their condition = encouraged to arrive at
        own solutions
      - ELLIOT - 'meta-analysis of 86 studies'
        
        humanistic therapies promoted improvements
        in clients
        = increased influence of therapies
- - - - Natural selection = mechanism of evolution
        
        genetic transmission of 'beneficial' characteristics
- - - - = a type of learning which occurs through
        associations made between UCS and NS
        
        positive / negative
      - PAVLOV - 'salivating dogs'
        
        food (UCS) & NS (bell) = salivation
        
        association = bell (CS) & salivation (CR)
        
        points about the process...
        1) stimulus generalisation = generlised to other related stimuli (associated with CR) - little Albert
        2) stimulus discrimination = stimulus not associated with CR as too different from original stimulus
        3) time contiguity = only occured if UCS and NS are
        presented at same time
        
        Spontaneous recovery = individual carries out
        CR some time after extinction
      - WATSON & RAYNER - 'Little Albert'
        
        phobic of rats
    - - = learning due to positive / negative
        consequences of behaviour
        
        reinforcement = increases likelihood
        
        punishment = decreases likelihood
      - Positive reinforcement = carry out a
        behaviour to receive a reward
        
        e.g, completing hw for praise from a teacher
      - Negative reinforcement = carry out a
        behaviour to avoid negative consequences
        
        e.g, completing hw to avoid a deterntion
      - Punishment = makes not doing
        something less likely
        
        e.g, not completing hw = teachers disapproval
      - SKINNERS box - 'positive & negative reinforcement'
        
        positive = pressing on level to receive a reward
        
        negative = pressed leaver to avoid negative consequences of shocks
        
        positive reinforcement = pellet
        punishment = electrified floor
        negative reinforcement = avoidance of floor
        
        continuous reinforcement = learned behaviour
        of pressing lever for a reward
        
        Analysis of behaviour - ABC
        
        A = antecedents - what happens prior to behaviour
        
        B = behaviour - operants (rat pressing lever)
        
        C = consequences - what happens after operant
    - - Continuous reinforcement = every response is
        reinforced
        
        e.g, receiving high grade for every test
      - Fixed interval = reinforcement given
        every 30 seconds providing response occurs once
        
        e.g, 15 min break after 1hur studying
      - Variable interval = reinforcement given every
        30 seconds but interval varies trial to trial
        
        e.g, self-employed receive payment irregularly
      - Fixed ratio = reinforcement given for
        a fixed number of responses
        
        e.g, commissions
      - Variable ratio = reinforcement given
        on average every 10 responses
        
        e.g, gambling
        
        most successful for response rate
  - - - Key concepts
        
        Imitation = individual observes role
        models behaviour and copies it (merely
        a simulation)
        
        Identification = individual is influenced by
        model because they are in some way similar
        
        Modelling = if an individual imitates a models
        behaviour
        
        Vicarious reinforcement = describes the reinforcement
        the observer sees the model receiving
    - - we learn behaviour vicariously = we don't receive
        rewards / punishments but the role model does
      - EVALUATION...
        
        difficult to see effects of SL in the long-term
        
        validity affected (most people would hit a bobo
        doll as that's it's purpose)
        
        demand characteristics = lack internal validity /
        mundane realism
    - - Attention = pivotal to whether a
        behaviour has an influence on others
        imitating it
      - Retention = memory of behaviour is
        formed to be performed later by the observer
      - Reproduction = limited by our
        physical ability (influences decision of
        whether to try and imitate it or not)
      - Motivation = rewards and punishments
        will be considered by the observer
        (if rewards outweigh costs = behaviour
        is more likely)