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U34 - Coggle Diagram
U34
2.2. STRUCTURE
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c) Sequence of steps
Introduction
The author's main argument presented as (1) a thesis (problem to be solved) or by (2) a suggestive & entertaining introduction to the theme in order to attract/persuade the reader
Explanation of the issue
The beginning of the of the body development by providing a thorough explanation of the issue under consideration, introducing different approaches to the issue, including historical and contemporary perspectives
Outline of the argument
It establishes the main points of the argument in a concise, organized, and coherent manner, establishing the relationship between the different parts
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Conclusion
It provides a good summary of both positive & negative arguments, reflecting the author's position on the issue
a) Types of structures
Zig-zag ~
Presenting a succession of positive & negative propositions (pro-con-pro-con) or vice versa (con-pro-con) depending on the role of the author as proponent or opponent
It is a dynamic & convincing way of presenting arguments, incorporating both sides of the debate
One-sided ~
Presenting the author's argument (& often the refutation of the opposition's arguments) without considering any opposing arguments: it lacks a balanced, objective analysis of both sides of the argument
They reinforce/emphasize the author's viewpoint and may selectively address or dismiss opposing arguments, always without providing a thorough examination or acknowledgment of their validity
Framed ~
The thesis presented in the introduction is part of the conclusion at the end again. Its purpose is to reinforce the main argument by framing the whole text around it (the author wants to create a clear, memorable message)
This is done so because the way we frame an idea largely determines how it will be understood/viewed.
Deductive ~
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It supports/verifies a general theory/statement with specific situations/experiments to come to specific conclusions (which are deduced)
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Eclectic ~
A combination of the previous techniques/approaches, incorporating different perspectives into the argument
Inductive ~
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It makes generalizations about specific observations to come to a general conclusion (which is induced)
Synthetic propositions
Its truthfulness relies on both the meaning of words & the knowledge of the world (by observation/evidence & probability)
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2.1. TYPES
Subjective
Definition
The speaker's desire to express personal opinions or emotions, or to provoke the audience
Perspective
His point of view is expressed by presuppositions & connotations, producing informal, persuasive, ironical, appreciative or pejorative arguments
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Found in
- Oral discourse: political speeches, debates, interviews, informal conversations, etc.
- Written discourse: letters, press articles, opinion columns, etc.
Role
Especially frequent thanks to the use of dialectics: a discourse btw speakers wishing to reach the truth through reasoned argumentation)
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Other types
A "fortiori"
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When someone deduces/derives a consequence/result from the conclusion drawn from another (a weeker version). If something is true under certain circumstances, it is even more likely to be true under stronger or more extreme circumstances
E.g. If studying for 5 hours a day results in significant improvement in our grades, then it can be argued a fortiori that studying for 8 hours a day would achieve even better grades.
A "contrario"
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If a certain situation or condition is true, then the opposite or negation of that situation or condition must also be true. When arguing from an accepted conclusion to the rejection of its contrary.
E.g. If a law states that speeding above 80 miles per hour is considered illegal, then it can be argued a contrario that driving below 80 miles per hour is legal.
to move from accepted assumptions by the audience to the desired conclusion the author wants to establish
Objective
Found in
Mainly written: Research documents, experiments, direct observation, fieldwork reports & analysis on statistics, tables, diagrams, maps, etc.
Secondary Role
Varied structure, subordinated to other text types, rarely appears by itself, but in relation to expositions, explanations, definitions...
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Perspective
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- Bibliographic references from relevant authors/institutions
- The author's personal experience
- Analogy: parallelism & comparison with similar ideas
Definition
/Scientific argumentation: based on established facts, evidence, logical analysis & rationality rather than personal opinions or emotions
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2. ARGUMENTATIVE TEXTS
Genres & Instances
Discussion, Interview, Speech, Essay, Opinion letter, Letter or Book on literary criticism
Definition & Purpose
Either oral or written, its purpose is to persuade & convince the audience in a reasonable way of the value of the arguments or ideas presented, which are almost always questionable (debatable/arguable). The fact of being questionable is the essence of argumentation: to present a suggestive argument (well-reasoned conclusions) for the audience to accept or at least seriously consider the speaker's POV
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Arguments
Dialectical ~
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A speaker trying to influence the listener of his argument/logic with interrupted discourse (a series of Questions & Answers), with counter-arguments to reach an agreement on truth
Aim to uncover the truth through a process of logical discussion & examination of opposing viewpoints. Focus on logical reasoning, evidence, and critical analysis. Characterized by a back-and-forth exchange of ideas, counterarguments, and evidence to reach a logical resolution. It aims to gain a deeper understanding of a topic or issue by engaging in well-reasoned & logical debate
Rhetorical ~
A speaker trying to influence his audience with an uninterrupted discourse, with no counter-arguments btw the people involved
Aim to persuade the audience rather than engage in a logical debate. Emphasis on capturing the audience's attention and creating a compelling, persuasive message. Often employ persuasive techniques such as emotional appeals, vivid language, rhetorical questions, storytelling, and engaging metaphors
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Presentation & evaluation of arguments that show the cause-effect relationship of an event or theory
Role
Secondary: mixed up with other discourse types (Narrative, Descriptive, Expository), rarely appear on their own but argumentation is always present at all levels (literary or not, fiction or non-fiction)
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1. TEXT & TEXT TYPOLOGY
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1.1. TEXT
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Texture
What distinguishes a text from sth that is not a text. It consists of cohesive relations within & between sentences. The interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another. The macrostructure of the text combines with intrasentence structure and intersentence cohesion to provide a text (a fragment of language with texture)
Text
- "Any instance of living language that plays a role in some context of situation"
Although it is apparently made of words & sentences, it is really made of meanings. It is a semantic & pragmatic unit, not a linguistic one. Hence, it has to be considered from two perspectives at once, both as product & as process
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Intertextuality
The factors which make the use of one text dependent on the knowledge of previously encountered texts: how the production & reception of a text depends on the participants' (producer & receiver) knowledge of other texts
Historically & structurally, texts do not occur in isolation, but are connected to other works of the same genres, and to other genres. This influence works in both directions
The relationship btw Texts types & Genres is not straightforward: Genres differ in their external formats , whereas Text types differ/are defined in terms of cognitive categories / communicative functions
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