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Prejudice: A hostile or negative attitude toward people in a…

- - - - Helps us to organise and figure out the world: There is too much information and not enough cognitive resources to process the information. Stereotypes help us to conserve our energy (the law of least effort)
      - Positive stereotypes can be just as bad
        
        For the person holding the stereotype, it is more maladaptive to mistakenly view someone more positively than to mistakenly view them negatively
        
        For the target, a positive stereotype still means that you are being interpreted as a category
        
        People who tend to endorse a lot of positive stereotypes also tend to endorse more negative stereotypes
      - Perpetuation and formation of stereotypes
        
        Confirmation bias: We pay more attention to stereotype-confirming evidence compared to evidence that challenge these stereotypes. We then feel good about ourselves when we get things right, and this would reinforce our stereotypes
        
        Illusory correlation: The tendency to see relationships or correlations between events that are actually unrelated
        
        This is especially so when the evens or the people are distinctive or conspicuous: Minorities and unusual events are more noticeable. When minorities engage in bad and unusual behaviour, people may think that minorities are more likely to engage in this behaviour
        
        Subtyping: When confronted with contradictions to one's stereotype, mentally create a subcategory to accommodate the exception without changing the overall stereotype
        
        Self-fulfilling prophecy
  - - - Overt discrimination (e.g. the availability of jobs, callbacks, etc.)
      - Covert discrimination: Making people feel like they don't belong (e.g. less eye-contact, etc.)
- - - - Modern racism scale
  - - - Hostile sexism scale
    - - The problem with benevolent sexism is that it can be used as a justification for hostile sexism. For example, the mentality that women should be protected can stop people from promoting women into positions of leadership (which can expose them to high-risk and high-stress situations)
        Benevolent and hostile sexism are two sides of the same coin; eradicating one requires the eradication of the other
- - - - In-group bias: We tend to like members of in-groups more than members of out-groups. This leads to unfair treatment of others merely because we have defined them as being in the out-group
        
        We feel better about ourselves when our group is better
      - Out-group homogeneity: The tendency to assume there is greater similarity among members of out-groups than there actually is, and than members of in-groups
        
        Cross-race effect: It is easier to recognise members of our own race compared to members of other races. When others are defined as another category of people, we tend to assume similarity and pay less attention to the subtle differences. This effect disappears when there are different races in the same group, but still exists for other out-groups
      - Ultimate attribution error: When the fundamental attribution error extends from one person to the entire outgroup
  - - - People experience two conflicting forces: Their urge to express their prejudice and the positive concept of themselves (I am not a bigot)
        
        This conflict results in people suppressing their urges to express their prejudices. However, constantly doing so is tiring as it uses cognitive resources. As a result, we look out for reasons to justify an expression of our prejudice. Once we find a justification, we can discriminate all we want without having to feel like we are bigots.
- - - - Contact alone is insufficient to reduce prejudice. There are six conditions to be met
        
        Mutual interdependence: People from different groups need to depend on each other for something
        
        Common goal: Both need to work towards something
        
        Equal status of the groups
        
        Informal contact
        
        Multiple contacts: Having multiple contact can reduce subtyping and prejudice
        
        Social norms of equality: The society must have bigger norms about equality
        
        Jigsaw classroom: A classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice and raise the self-esteem of children by placing them in small, multiethnic groups and making each child dependent on the other children in the group to learn the course material
      - However, contact can increase prejudice and discrimination