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Block 2 - Coggle Diagram
Block 2
Week 9：Autonomous Language Teacher in the Post-method Era
A brief history of language teaching
early to mid 20th century
The Grammar-Translation Method 语法翻译法
Goal: read its literature
2.Reading and writing are the major focus; little or no attention is paid to speaking and listening
3.Vocabulary selection is based solely on the reading texts used and words are taught through bilingual wordlists, dictionary study and memorisation.
Accuracy is emphasised. Students are expected to attain high standards in translation.
4.The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. Much of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of the target language.
Grammar is taught deductively – that is, by presentation and study of grammar rules, which are then practiced through translation exercises.
The student’s native language is the medium of instruction.
The Direct Method 直接法
Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught.
Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully graded progression organised around question-and answer exchanges between teachers and students.
Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively in the target language.
Grammar is taught inductively
New teaching points are introduced orally.
6, Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects and pictures
Both speech and listening comprehension are taught.
Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasised
The Audio-Lingual Method 听说法
Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation. By memorizing dialogues and performing pattern drills the chances of producing mistakes are minimized.
Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the target language are presented in spoken form before they are seen in written form.
Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning (e.g. She was as quiet as a mouse. It is hard to hear a mouse, so that means she was very quiet)
1970-1980
The Silent Way 沉默法
1) Makes extensive use of silence as a teaching technique.
2) The teacher does not interfere in the learning process.
3) Imitation and drills are not the primary means through which students learn.
4) Learning consists of deliberate experimentation
1980 - present
The Post Method Era
Bax (2003):
Concerns over the imposition of a method without taking into account the context where the learning is happening;
Context analysis: by analysing the cultural context and values, teachers can develop their own procedures from the range of methodological knowledge and techniques they have available to them. They can then start teaching, reflect on it and evaluate what has happened in order to decide how to proceed further
Being an Autonomous Language Teacher in the Post Method Era
What is teacher autonomy? McGrath’s (2000)
self-directed professional development
freedom from constraints originating
inside or outside of educational institutions
(a) The first perspective reflects the currency in the language teaching field of concepts such as the teacher as researcher, action research, and reflective practice, which position the teacher at the center of his or her own development.
(b) The second perspective deals with teachers’ responses to various constraints, and focuses on how teacher autonomy grows out of an evaluative stance toward the contextual factors that teachers can control.
The constituent of teachers’ autonomy (⾃主性)
Knowing their own personal qualities, experiences and beliefs;
Examining theoretical approaches, methods and techniques;
Studying their students, the classroom dynamics and the wider socio-cultural context;
Knowing exactly why they do/don’t do certain things in their classroom teaching (i.e. the importance of describing aims/objectives in lesson planning);
Constantly reflecting, evaluating and making “principled” decisions…
Allright (2003):
The quality of life in the language classroom is much more important than instructional efficiency;
Exploratory practice: involving teachers identifying a learning puzzle (e.g., why certain things happen or not in classroom language teaching), reflecting on it, gathering data and trying out different ways of solving the puzzle, reflecting at each stage on what happens in order to decide what to do next.
Task-Based Learning (TBL) 任务型教学
1) TBL is the realisation/natural extension of communicative language teaching.
3) ‘A task is a holistic activity which engages language use in order to achieve some non- linguistic outcome while meeting a linguistic challenge, with the overall aim of promoting language learning through process or product or both
2) CLT addresses the question why? TBLT answers the question how?’ (Nunan 2014: 458).
a. A typical TBL sequence starts with a pre-task where students are introduced to the topic and told what the task will be. (FoF/Implicit)
b. This is followed by a task-cycle where the students plan the task, gathering language and information to do it, and then produce the piece of writing or oral performance that the task demands. (FoF/Implicit)
c. In the final language focus phase, students analyse the language they used for the task, making improvements and practicing any language that needs repair or developments. (FoFS/Explicit)
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) 交际法
1) A shift away from a focus on how language was formed (grammar and vocabulary, etc.) to an emphasis on what language was used for
2) If ‘language is communication’, then students should be involved in meaning focused communicative tasks so that ‘language learning will take care of itself’.
3) Activities in CLT typically involve students in real or realistic communication, where the successful achievement of the communicative task they are performing is at least as important as the accuracy of their language use.
4) Role-play and simulation (where students act out real communication in a classroom setting) became popular
5) Communicative activities
• In communicative activities, the students had a desire to communicate something and a purpose for doing it (perhaps because they wanted to close an ‘information gap’ between themselves and the people they were talking to).
• As a result, they were focused on the content of what they were saying or writing and used a variety of language rather than focusing on a particular language form.
• The teacher would not intervene to stop the activity; and the materials he or she relied on would not dictate what specific language forms the students used, either.
• Such activities attempted to replicate (or mimic) real communication
Worksheet
Chen, Wright
Week 10
Lecture 3: Understanding the Language Classroom
Ten principles for an ideal "instructed language acquisition" situation
Instruction needs to ensure that learners develop both a rich repertoire of formulaic expressions and a rule-based competence.
Instruction needs to ensure that learners focus predominantly on meaning.
Instructions needs to ensure that learners also focus on form.
Instruction needs to be predominantly directed at developing inplicit knoeledge of the second language while not neglecting explicit knowledge.
Instruction needs to take into account the learner's built- in syllabus.
Successful instructed language learning requires extensive second language input.
Successful instructed language learning also requires opportunities for output.
The opportunity to interact in the second language is central to
developing second language proficiency.
Instruction needs to take account of individual differences in learners
In assessing learners’ second language proficiency, it is important to examine free as well as controlled production.
one sample lesson（from Ms. Liu）
激发学生参与度的方式
set students‘ roles and tasks
nick names: more interesting; learn other countries' cities and cultures
each group consists students of various levels: motivate peer cooperation; teamwork; learn from classmates
VIP commentators: provide chances to output; improve thinking and speaking abilities
Class record
episode1: autentic learning;modelling
episode2: brainstorm (whole class)
episode6: select one student to read (question: would every group only pick A-level student each time to outperform others? Other students may lose opportunities to show themselves?
Q&A: for weaker students
新课标下的初中英语学习活动观主题研修
英语学习活动观：
活动是英语学习的基本形式
（结合Vygotskyan Sociocultural Theory of Learning）
活动是什么：英语学习活动观下的三类学习活动
学习理解类
应用实践类
迁移创新类
活动中如何提供高质量的“帮助”
聚焦ZPD，根据学生反馈预测学生语言发展，达到“有梯度的”“对话形式的”“即时的”“长期的”
隐形/显性教学与隐形/显性语言知识的学习之间的联系
Focus on Forms（显性形式教学）
Implicit Learning（隐形形式教学）
Focus on Form（形式与意义兼顾的形式教学）:主要关注meaning
对学生语言能力的评价：准确度/复杂度/流利度
学生活动参与度
高参与度：不关注语言形式，高交际性、真实性
The communicative contimuum→We should try to focus more on meanings and messages than forms to create higher level of communicativeness.
Questionnaire Result Analysis
1.提供大量语言输入、保证学生关注语言形式（例如发音、语法、句式等）、引导学生注意显性的语言知识、在可控的语言操练活动中进行评价相对来说容易实现；
2.提供充足的语言输出机会、以交际和意义建构为目的、提供真实的社会情境、注重个体差异、引导学生学习隐性知识、在自由的语言输出活动中进行评价相对较难实现。
Bloom's Taxonomy
Two main objectives of education
Maintenance of learning 知识的保持: recall/comprehend/apply learnt knowledge
Transfer of learning 知识的迁移: recall/remember
Reading materils
Use of the First Language
(Lixian and Martin Corazzi)
Changes of theoretical and practival perceptions
on L1 use
Historically——1980s-1990s——twenty-dirst-century:
particular uses of L1 are gradually recognized:
brief, concise and can be minimally employed.
However, constraints persist.
Pedagogic Implications
Linguistic context
when learners speak similar languages, teachers can
refer to the L1 to ease learning
learning context
the use of L1 seems justified and helpful for acquiring specific academic or professional knowledge
in classroom(phenomenon)
students
Their attitudes to, motivation for, and beliefs about English can affect their tendency to use the L1 or not.
teachers
Using English only in ELT is easy for teachers, particularly those for whom English is a second language. (artificial and uneasy)
code-switching
a situation in which two languages (codes) are used interactively and alternatively in talk—has been shown in sociolinguistics to have systematic uses among bilinguals
Conclusion
·Different attitudes around the world
·The role of L1 depends on local linguistic and educational circumstances, prevailing methods, policies and classroom practices, and the stance, attitude, and beliefs of participants.
What should we do
Teacher
discuss various L1 uses with learners and to give reasons for whether, when, and why L1 might or might not be used. As classroom managers and exemplars, teachers are gatekeepers and models of the actual L1 uses, just as they are for English.
A general guide
use of the L1 in class should be minimal, focused, clear, and concise, and should have recognized reasons that can be explained to students, or perhaps decided with them.
Policy maker
should take teachers’ experiences and professional views into account
Translanguaging and the benefits of going beyond codeswitching: some practical applications
The term of translanguaging
Williams (1994): the first time
Baker: Bilingualism is not just two separate languages used at the same time
Also noted some advantages of translanguaging
Baker and Garcia: raised both advantages and worrisome concerns about translanguaging
How translanguaging works
not 2 single languages mixed, but a individual system.
benefits: translanguaging provides numerous purposes in scaffolding for the purpose of communication.
different categories of bilingualism
Lambert
simultaneous, successive, late and passive bilingualism
additive
the new language learnt arguments the original one
subtractive
New language learnt, the original language becomes eradicated
Pedagogical implications
some possible strategies that are useful to reach
the classroom academic goals of building background knowledge, deepening
understanding, and thinking critically (e.g., collaborative grouping, reading multilingual texts, multilingual listening, visual resources, and project learning).
for cross- linguistic transfer and flexibility
incorporating word walls, sentence starters, cognates, comparing multilingual text, vocabulary, syntax, and translanguaging in writing, speaking, and reading
learning aids
sentence starters, T‐charts, story maps, Venn diagrams,
cluster word webs, flowcharts, KWL charts, timelines, concept maps, templates,forms, and strategically predesigned charts to fill in
adaptation in writing
write first in native language, then translate the writing into another language.
think in translanguaging way, but write in the specific languege
My reflection:
Translanguaging is conducive to developing students' thinking depth and width. Since translanguaging is not simply combining two languages together, it is a process of using the structures of both of the learner's known languages and produce a complete and global understanding. As is noted by Garcia and Baker, using translanguaging in language learning courses can also be an effective way for students to deepen their understanding of both languages.
Roles for Corrective Feedback in Second Language Instruction
(ROY LYSTER)
TYPE
a reformulation or a prompt
reformulation
recast
the teacher’s reformulation of all or part of a student’s utterance, minus the error
Explicit correction
also provides the correct form but,unlike recasts, “clearly indicates that what the student had said was incorrect”
prompt
withhold correct forms and instead provide clues to prompt students to retrieve these forms from their current knowledge.
Distinctions among different feedback types are less categorical when it comes to comparing implicit and explicit types
The delivery of recasts varies from implicit to explicit
Some explicit feedback techniques:
Provision of the correct form
Withhold the correct form and provide either metalinguistic information or simply a metalinguistic “clue”
Prompts also range from implicit to explicit,but are distinguishable from recasts and explicit correction in terms of what Ortega calls demand: “the degree of conversational urgency exerted upon interlocutors to react to the negative feedback”
Functions:
Recasts are by far the most frequently used feedback across a spectrum of classroom settings.
Reasons:
1.“pedagogically expeditious”
2.Documented how they fulfill important discourse functions that help to move lessons ahead when target forms are beyond students’ abilities
3.specific scaffolding functions that promote a shift toward a
4.more academic register, especially in content-based instructional contexts
benefit second language development because they provide learners with a primary source of negative evidence.
focus on form and to notice errors in their interlanguage production
AGAINST:
linguistic ambiguity
more likely to identify recasts as noncorrective repetition than as recasts—regardless of whether or not they actually heard the learner’s preceding utterance.
Seedhouse
a conversation analysis perspective: more direct and overt corrective feedback so that “pedagogy and interaction would then work in tandem”
Proponents of skill acquisition theory
Sociocultural theory
feedback that assists novice learners in moving away from reliance on other-repair provided by experts and toward more reliance on the self
Output hypothesis:
benefit more from being pushed to retrieve target language forms than from merely hearing the forms in the input
Overall educational perspective
scaffolding that enables them to take more responsibility
Effects:
Lyster and Saito’s meta-analysis of 15
1.Recasts, prompts, and explicit correction all yielded significant effects.
Prompts yielded large effect sizes and proved significantly more effective in the within-group contrasts than recasts, which yielded medium effect sizes.
The relative effects of explicit correction could not be distinguished from those of recasts and prompts.
Specifically examined the role of linguistic targets in feedback effectiveness
Ellis:
compared the variable effects of recasts and metalinguistic explanations on ESL (-ed is easier than -er)
Yang and Lyster:
effects of recasts and prompts on Chinese EFL ( regular and irregular past tense forms)
Saito and Lyster:
pronunciation development
Variable effectiveness of recasts：a research has focused on individual differences and learner perceptions of recasts
Criteria： immediate uptake or subsequent recall
Many studies indicate that recasts of phonological and lexical errors are more noticeable than recasts of errors in morphosyntax
Trofimovich, Ammar, and Gatbonton—— a laboratory study
?? When learners repeat a recast, they are more likely to subsequently perceive its corrective intention during stimulated recall sessions, but other laboratory studies have shown it is not.
Current research: positive learning outcomes are associated with self-repair following prompts but not necessarily with learner repetition following recasts, whose variable effectiveness has instead been associated with specific input features such as length and prosody.
Future Directions:
Cognitive:
individual differences are worthy of further pursuit
the effects over time of the different types of processing triggered by different types of CF as manifested (or not) by immediate (or delayed) learner repair
Linguistic :
the role of linguistic targets in feedback effectiveness and especially how these effects vary in conjunction with learners’ developing knowledge of the target forms
further pursuit in terms of linguistic features is research designed to tease apart the specific attributes of recasts, prompts, and explicit correction that contribute to their variable effectiveness in classroom settings
Socio-educational:
how the differential effects of these attributes vary in relation to the overall communicative orientation of the instructional setting and the second or foreign-language learners therein.
Week 8
outline of block 2
Lecture 4: Case Study 1 – Block 2 Groupwork Showcase
Lecture 3: Understanding the Language Classroom
Lecture 2: Autonomous Language Teacher in the Post-method Era (Release of Block 2 Groupwork Instructions)
Lecture 1: English Language Teaching around the World: Trends, Issues and Approaches
Week 8 content: ELT around the world
Approaches of ELT
The relationship between APPROACHES ad METHODS
Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon the selected approach (i.e.
the level at which theory is put into ractice and at which choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught, and the order in which the content will be presented.)
a) the use of teaching activities (drills, dialogues, etc.) presented in a sequence to present new language,
b) the ways in which particular activities are used for practicing language,
c) the techniques used for giving feedback
Approach refers to theories about the nature of language and language learning that serve as a source of practices and principles in language teaching.
3+ views: functional, interactional, etc.
Trends in ELT: ESL/ EFL, EGP, ESP (BE, EAP, etc.),Content &Language in ELT
Kachru’s (1985/1992) Three Circle Model of World Englishes: the spread of English worldwide
Trends in ELT: English as a Second Language vs. English as a Foreign Language
ESL: English as a second language
Second indicates...? A: language except for the native tongue
immigrants learning English in an English- dominant society
Learners need to use English in daily lives
More inclusive terms: English as an additional language (EAL)/English for speakers of other languages (ESOL)
Example: In Gateshead College in UK, students need to learn English as their life skills, as well as to integrate into the English-speaking society. E.g. Filling out a form for a driving licence
ESL vs EFL
English as a foreign language (EFL)
Definition: People learning English in a non-English-dominant society
Reflection on ourselves: learning objective and opportunities outside classroom
EGP, ESP (BE, EAP, etc.), Content & Language in ELT
English for General Purposes (EGP)
English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
Integrating Content and Language in ELT
Integrating Content and Language in ELT:
¡ In primary and secondary education: Content-based Instruction (US), Content and Language; Integrated Learning (CLIL) (EU);
4Cs Framework in CLIL
1 more item...
¡ In higher education: English-medium Instruction, Integrating Content and Language in Higher Education
Group Task (Poster)
The proportion of English-speaking population: large. And among those, native English speakers only accounts for less than 20%
Issues in ELT: NSET vs. NNSETs, ELF & Multilingualism
The Native-speaker Fallacy?
In fact: (Answers)
One can achieve native intuition in a language later in life through continued use and group identity
someone speak two languages at home can still be a native speaker of English
Adult learners have to achieve native intuition if they want to be considered as native speakers.
linguistic intuition?
Rampton
"expertise"
Higgins
"ownership"
Dichotomy
Potential Strengths of bilingual teachers
6 more items...
Our attitudes toward English:
1 more item...
Linguistic Imperialism 语⾔帝国主义：在优势语⾔与其他语⾔之间，由于结构和⽂化⽅⾯的不平等使强势语⾔⻓期维持的⽀配地位，将逐渐地把主导语⾔转移给说其他语⾔的⼈。（In relation to power）
Revsion: block 1
the nature of language learning and language
The relationship with other courses
A birds-eye view a systematic framework of the
disciplinary knowledge and how they relate to us
Zoom in current issues and debates: get an awareness of where we are ( the standpoint).
relationship with other course: psycholinguistic, the subject-based teaching pedagogy, SLA...
Worksheet
Harmer-2015- the practice of ELT
