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U5 (3. ROUTINES & FORMULAS, 2. ELEMENTS & RULES GOVERNING ORAL…

- - - - Native speakers possess a list of memorised routines which help their speech sound natural, and if language learners wish to achieve a sense of naturalness as comparable as possible to that of a native speaker, they must be taught common formulae and routines as part of the speaking component of a language course
        
        Requests & Commands
        1st person imperatives with "Let's"
        Discourse markers
  - - - Most common way of opening a conversation since participants address each other with salutations which may be more or less formal, and are accompanied by extralinguistic features (kisses, shaking hands, etc.)
        
        Often, the first contact is usually nonlinguistic and is made before a single word is said (i.e. a smile, shaking hands, tapping on the shoulder)
    - - When both participants have successfully fulfilled their initial purpose (although sometimes the ending is unsuccessful)
        
        Negotiation strategies to end the conversation:
        
        Ending offer: "It's been nice but I must go"
        
        Ending acceptance: "Me too, I hope to see you again"
        
        Farewell: "We'll keep in touch then. See you!"
        
        Ending of the conversation: "Goodbye"
  - - - Question-Answer:
        
        Greeting-Greeting:
        
        Complaint-Apology:
        
        Compliment-Acceptance:
        
        Invitation-Acceptance:
  - - - Rising tone (implies doubt & invites verification)
        
        Falling tone (implies certainty & invites confirmation)
  - - - "Hi, how are you?", "Nice weather, isn't it?"
        
        "Well, it was great talking to you. See you"
        
        "What do you think about...?"
        
        "Sorry, could you repeat that?"
        
        "Excuse me, can I...?", "I see your point., but..."
- - - - Phonological System
        
        Speech Sounds
        
        Consonants, Vowels, Syllables
        
        Prosody
        
        Stress
        
        When we give more emphasis to some parts of the utterance than to others. To make a syllable stand out with respect to its neighbouring syllables in a word or to the rest of words in a longer utterance
        
        Secondary ~
        
        Sometimes found in long words
        
        Primary ~
        
        A change of stress within a word may change the whole meaning of it
        
        Emphasis
        
        Essential as it gives the message a non-literal meaning, providing speakers with a choice to highlight the information they may consider important
        
        Rhythm
        
        The succession of prominent & non-prominent syllables in an utterance. It establishes a relationship btw stress & pauses
        
        Quick & monotonous
        
        Prominent & non-prominent syllables take place in short equal units of time, though not found in authentic speech
        
        Inexistent & chaotic
        
        Pauses
        
        Predictable: to take a breath between sentences/separate grammatical units.
        Unpredictable: false starts/hesitation
        
        Intonation
        
        The rising & falling of voice during speech
        
        Falling
        
        Statements
        
        Rising
        
        Questions
        
        Tone
        
        Speakers use a normal intonation in oral interaction, but depending on the meaning the speakers may convey, they will use a different tone, which is responsible for changes of meaning or expressing attitudes (enthusiasm, sadness, anger)
        
        Prosodic elements
    - - Facial Expression
        
        An automatic response to an internal state, can be controlled voluntarily to some extent, and are used socially to express emotions, attitudes & intentions
      - Gaze Direction
        
        It plays a crucial role in communication, as it can indicate interest, attention & engagement. Eye contact, for instance, is often seen as a sign of attentiveness & respect in many cultures. Also, gaze direction can be used to signal turn-taking in conversations
      - Gestures
        
        Gesticulations
        
        Representational: unplanned gestures, related to semantic content of speech to describe size, strength or speed (directly related to the semantic content of words)
        
        Batons
        
        Simple & repetitive rhythmic hand movements coordinated with sentence prosody to enhance the flow of speech
        
        Emblems
        
        Symbolic: hand signs with well-established meanings, can substitute words
      - Voice
        
        Speech also contains a lot of non-verbal info. Voice transmits individuating info about age, gender, origin, social class... Changes in vocal quality (acoustic properties) provide information about changes in the speaker’s internal/affective state (hesitation or interjections). And listeners recognise these changes
  - - - Morphological
        
        How to form words & meaningful sub-words (morphemes) out of phonological elements
        
        (word formation)
      - Syntantic
        
        How to structure sentences in an appropriate, accurate way. These rules allow speakers to produce & understand an unlimited number of sentences never produced or heard before
        
        (sentence formation)
      - Phonological
        
        How to produce sounds which form meaningful sentences. How acoustic signals turn into a sequence of speech sounds (consonants, vowels, and syllables)
        
        (pronunciation)
      - Semantic
        
        Capacity to combine language rules to convey meaning within an utterance
        
        Metaphors
        
        With no literal meaning but connected to abstract meaning
        
        Idioms
        
        Where the meaning of an expression may not be related to the individual meaning of its parts as it makes no sense as they are culturally embedded
        
        Anomaly
        
        A violation of semantic rule to create nonsense
        
        (meaning)
      - Grammar (Linguistic competence)
    - - Coherence
        
        Speakers are intended to select not only the content and structure of the messages, but also how to organize information in a logical and comprehensible way, forming a unified whole
      - Cohesion
        
        Forming a cohesive unit by means of cohesive devices: reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical organization/cohesion (reiteration and collocation).
      - Appropiateness
        
        The extent to which an utterance is proper/suitable for a particular audience and a particular purpose in a given sociolinguistic context. Each person chooses the language variety and the appropriate register according to the situation
      - Effectiveness
        (Sociolinguistic, Discourse & Strategic competence)
    - - Turn Taking
        
        Requirements
        
        Only one person must talk at a time
        
        Each participant should have a chance to talk
        
        The gaps btw turns should be as quick as possible for efficiency
        
        3 Degrees of Control
        
        The person addressed by
        the current speaker
        
        The person who speaks first
        
        The current speaker, if he
        resumes before anyone else speaks
        
        The next turn goes to...
        
        the back-and-forth exchange of ideas, where one person speaks while the others listen
      - Elements
        
        S
        
        Setting (physical circumstances)
        
        A
        
        Act sequence (message form & content)
        
        E
        
        End (purposes, goals)
        
        K
        
        Key (tone & manner)
        
        P
        
        Participants
        
        I
        
        Instrumentalities (verbal, non-verbal & physical channel)
        
        N
        
        Norms of interaction (specific proprieties of speaking), and interpretation (of norms within cultural belief system)
        
        G
        
        Genre (text types)
        
        Dell Hymes' model of the components of a speech event
      - Grice's
        
        Quantity
        
        Be informative: give enough information and not too much
        
        Relation
        
        Be relevant: omit irrelevant information
        
        Quality
        
        Be truthful: Do not say what you believe is false or have no evidence for
        
        Manner
        
        Be brief & clear: avoid ambiguity
        
        Cooperative Principle/
        Conversational Maxims
      - Studies the underlying rules & patterns governing conversation and how participants behave and convey meaning in interaction
- - - - To convey the intended message despite lacking competence (linguistic limitations), by finding alternative ways to express ideas or using simplified language (thus to compensate for gaps in their language ability)
        
        Approximation
        
        Similar word
        
        Circumlocution
        
        Describing
        
        Word coinage
        
        New word
        
        Literal translation
        
        Code switching
        
        Appeal for assistance
        
        Asks the correct form
        
        Mime
        
        Non-linguistic means
      - /Achievement
      - Instead of using the appropriate word:
    - - To avoid certain linguistic structures or topics when communicating in the L2, in order to maintain communication while minimizing the risk of errors or misunderstanding
        
        Topic avoidance
        
        Message abandonment
        
        Stopping mid-utterance
      - /Stalling
    - - To gain additional time to process information & formulate a response during communication (when learners need a moment to think, understand a complex question, or retrieve vocabulary or grammar structures)
        
        Fillers
        
        To fill pauses & gain time to think
        
        Repetition
        
        Self- & other-
    - - To manage conversations, negotiate meaning, & maintain social relationships during communication, thus helping learners engage in effective and meaningful communication with others
        
        Appeal for help
        
        Directly or not
        
        Negotiation of meaning
        
        Comprehension check
        
        Interpretive summary
        
        Misunderstanding request
    - - To monitor & evaluate their own language production during communication, in order to become aware of their errors & make conscious efforts to correct or modify their speech in real-time
        
        Self-initiated repair
        
        Correcting yourself
        
        Self-rephrasing
        
        Repeats a modified version of a phrase
- - - - A much wider domain of enquiry of which language is part: the analysis of linguistic & non-linguistic signs in communication processes in general. It deals with patterned human communication in all its modes and in all contexts
        
        Non-Verbal
        
        Visual & Tactile modes
        
        get the message by
        
        Sound (auditory-vocal)
        
        Speech, Musical sounds, Paralanguage
        
        Touch (tactile)
        
        Braille alphabet of the blind, Secret codes
        
        Sight (visual)
        
        Writing, Sign languages, Morse, Traffic lights
        
        Verbal
        
        Speech
        
        Limited
        
        Speech sounds > Phonemes
        
        Writing
        
        Unlimited
        
        Linguistic units > Words
        
        Code: Language
      - Jakobson
        
        Oral vs Written communication
        
        Different registers
        
        Some constructions may only be found in writing, others only occur in speech (uses different types/registers of language: slang and swear words).
        
        Formal/Informal
        
        Writing is more formal, it provides the standard that society values, which gives it a special status. We use it to learn/improve our command of vocabulary
        
        Permanence/Spontaneity
        
        Permanence of writing: allows repeated reading & close analysis (across time-space, grammatically correct, more filtered and complex).
        
        Spontaneity & rapidity/immediacy of speech: minimises the chances of complex pre-planning & often includes repetitions, interruptions, and incomplete sentences
        
        Nominalisation/Verbs
        
        Writing relies on nominalization, speech relies on verbs
        
        Lexically simple/dense
        
        Writing is lexically denser (more content words per clause), speech is lexically simple
        
        Graphic/Phonic substance
        
        Writing uses graphic substance (visual), typically in the form of marks on a surface, Speech uses phonic substance (vocal), typically in the form of air-pressure movements
        
        Participants
        
        In speech interaction: feedback is possible, based on negotiation of meaning
        
        In writing interaction: cannot usually see each other & cannot make clear what they mean (no immediate feedback/negotiation except for chat messages)
        
        Graphic features
        
        Many aspects of written language (tables, graphs & complex formulae, punctuation) cannot be conveyed by reading aloud (have no speech equivalent)
        
        Analysis of differences:
        Points of contrast
        
        Sender/Addresser
        
        Emotive
        
        To express the speaker's attitude, feelings, moods
        
        Receiver/Addressee
        
        Conative
        
        To persuade & influence others through commands & requests, to get the attention or a reaction from the addressee
        
        Situational context
        
        Referential
        
        To convey information in an objective way
        
        Channel
        
        Phatic
        
        To establish a social connection btw two speakers (the social function of language: not to give meaningful information)
        
        Code
        
        Metalinguistic
        
        To talk about the language itself (its features, word definitions) & to clarify/correct the way it is used (clarifying ambiguity)
        
        Message
        
        Poetic
        
        To focus on the message for its own sake: a decorative/aesthetic function of language. It is based on phonetic properties & explained by a universal desire to exploit the acoustic potential of language
        
        6 Elements of communication, associated to 6 Functions of language
    - - The physiological & genetic evolution of our vocal tract was essential in the emergence of language, which was accompanied by natural sounds & body language.
- - - - Writing was not intended to replace Speech: they serve different purposes & this leads to structural differences (differences in form & function)
        
        Process (dynamic)
        
        Product (static)
- - - - Speech precedes writing chronologically in both the history of people and the development of a person
      - There are non-literate language communities
      - Writing is an arbitrary representation of a language
      - Deciphering written records is impossible without previous knowledge of language
      - Written forms hinder rather than help our understanding of actual speech (is a poor guide to the underlying phonemes)
  - - - Speech (the real object of study): what people say varies to some extent from individual to individual & from situation to situation
    - - No independent life, its only function was to represent/make manifest the sound system/system of sounds which form a language
    - - Language system: the language rules of a social group outside of individual use: the systematic structures underlying individual utterances