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Challenges and issues for culturally aligned leadership, Define culturally…

- - - - 3. Equitable Outcomes
        Iwi, hapū, whānau and Māori outcomes should be equitable across education, building capability and capacity, and reducing disparity.
        
        Macf, 66 - Under Article 3 of the Treaty, Maori were guaranteed the full rights of British citizenship.
      - Macf, 66 - Under Article 1 of this Treaty, Maori ceded kawanatanga (governorship or administrative control) to the Crown.
  - - - D&W, 146 - Define culture:
        'Culture’ is defined as the enduring sets of beliefs, values and ideologies underpinning structures, processes and practices which distinguishes one group of people from another. The group of people may be at school level (organisational culture) or at national level (societal culture).
        
        can vary on multiple levels and therefore needs CAL
      - D&W, 147 - one-size-does-not-fit-all:
        Policy-makers and practitioners are increasingly adopting policy blueprints, management structures, leadership practices and professional development programmes fashioned in different cultural settings while giving little consideration to their cultural fit. In seeking to understand why some leadership practices appear to be workable in some contexts but not others, and the nature of adaptation needed, there is a clear need to take the cultural and cross-cultural contexts into account.
      - D&W, 147 - The dominance of Anglo-American theory, policy and practice denies or understates the influence that culture, and societal culture in particular, may have on the successful implementation of policy. There is serious risk at present that our understandings will remain too narrowly conceived.
        
        159 - limitations of existing models and theories which tend to be ethnocentric, and by generally failing to distinguish cultural boundaries, to assume a false universalism.
      - D&W, 145 - No two societies are exactly alike demographically, economically, socially or politically.
        
        145/ - Within countries/ regions: High differentiation/ variation among regions not being considered
- - - - Epistemology
        'How we know that we know something?'
        
        M2.3 - the epistemological status of what counts as indigenous educational leadership knowledge
        
        F&S, 25 - Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the origin, nature, methods of derivation, and limits, of human knowledge.
      - Methodology
        ‘How do I find out about this reality?’
      - Axiology
        ‘What part of this reality is worth finding out about?’
      - Ontology
        ‘What is real?’
    - - Power
        
        Cultural capital
        M2.5 - In the educational context, only certain knowledge, skills and beliefs are recognised, valued and rewarded (Apple, 1999; Harker & Nash, 1990). Apple (1999) further describes this as 'official or high status' knowledge endorsed by dominant cultures, which serves to silence those voices outside of that culture.
        
        Apple (1999) - https://auckland.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/64UAUCK_INST/p27258/cdi_webofscience_primary_000087082400001CitationCount
- - - - Scott, 22 - English should not come at the expense of home language
      - Carder, 12 - It is hardly necessary to point out that even mother tongue speakers of the school language of instruction have a challenging task in school, but unfortunately many of those involved in schooling assume that non-English speakers will quickly pick up the language and forget the extra difficulties that this involves.
      - Carder, 16 - This is a frequent occurrence in International Schools, when immersion in English begins before the basics of a student’s mother tongue have been mastered.
        
        Carder, 19 - This is unfortunate for the hundreds of students who go through a process of initial confusion, disorientation, inner loss, emotional upset, gradual loss of their own language and links to their own culture, and a lifetime of never being really literate in English or any other language.
        
        Carder, 25 - A programme that offers only basic ESL with no instruction in the student’s mother tongue may impoverish the child, with the long-term consequences
      - Carder, 20 - SCI training needs:
        In some schools there is no programme for teaching them their mother tongue, and the majority of the staff is not trained in any way to instruct them according to their language needs.
      - Cummins, 19 - educators are often much less aware about how quickly children can lose their ability to use their mother tongues, even in the home context. The extent and rapidity of language loss will vary according to the concentration of families from a particular linguistic group in the school and neighborhood. Where the mother tongue is used extensively in the community outside the school, then language loss among young children will be less.
        
        applies to SCI
      - Milo, 253 - Students whose mother tongue is not developed will most likely lack competence in the second language.
    - - HB, 73 - Language learning is a means of promoting intercultural understanding, and children are quick to sense, even at an early age, if their language is not valued in society or that certain languages and cultures are more valued than others. Often as a result children might decide not to speak their native language outside the home.
      - HB, 73 - Our identity is conveyed in our language, and in our expressions and engagements, distinctiveness and allegiances.
      - H&K, 6 - suppression of home languages, at best, is internalised due to the persistent belief that ‘forgetting’ one’s mother tongue and speaking the dominant language is the only way to achieve economic and social success. At worst, it is a manifestation of contemporary colonialism. In all cases, it is a form of discrimination. Children’s rights to education, identity and language on the basis of non-discrimination and equality are protected under multiple international instruments.
      - H&K, 21 - Language-based exclusion has a long history. It is deeply rooted in colonialism and nation building on the basis of notions of class and racial superiority.
      - Milo, 258 - The perception of inferiority of their mother tongue led to a long-term devaluation of their cultural identity and language outside of school.
    - - Cris, 11 - It is hard to argue that we are teaching the whole child when school policy dictates that students leave their language and culture at the schoolhouse door.
      - Carder, 2007
        
        Carder, 28 - there are still places where the richness of the languages and cultures found where young people from many nations come together is not built on, but instead is either ignored or strait-jacketed into the English-only framework, thus damaging children’s language growth, identity, academic potential and spirit.
        
        Carder, 29 - Without an educational programme that builds on and enriches students’ mother tongues, educators may be abusing these students’ inner sanctum – their cognitive, academic and linguistic centre, which makes up much of their personality and character. This can have obvious deleterious effects both emotionally and academically.
        
        Carder, 13 - Students, especially younger ones, can feel alienated and out of place.
      - HB, 78 - Language is very emotive and is central to one’s identity: using and developing a child’s home language makes his personality blossom and more complete. Respect is a key to a child’s confi dence; thus, respecting a child’s culture is of great importance. There is a wealth of languages to be discovered. There is a complex relationship between language, culture and identity. Language is not simply a tool; it is part of the social experience of a culture, a way of thinking and feeling.
      - HB, 78 - Breaking the link that connects children to their language may affect them deeply.
        
        It is important for children, indeed it is their right, to use in school the language with which they identify alongside the second language so that they can reach their potential in the academic world and in later life.
      - Language is central to one's identity
        
        Baker, 337 - Yet language is one of the strongest symbols and boundary markers in having a group, regional, cultural or national identity.
        
        Baker, 337 - Our identity is conveyed in our language, in our expressions and engagements, predilections and preferences. Language is a symbol of our identity, conveying our preferred distinctiveness and allegiance (e.g. Irish). However, language does not by itself define us.
        
        Baker, 337 - The reciprocal relationship between language and identity is complex.
      - Language-based exclusion
        
        Hurwitz & Kambel, 2020
        
        Article 29C - ‘respect for the child’s parents, his or her own cultural identity, language and values, for the national values of the country in which the child is living, the country from which he or she may originate, and for civilisations different from his or her own’
        https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/crc-1989/article-29?activeTab=undefined
        
        H&K, 6 - In every part of the world, children belonging to indigenous groups, linguistic minorities and migrant communities have been and continue to be prohibited from and punished for using their mother tongue in classes or on school grounds.
        
        we have PUNISHMENT in our POLICY
        
        H&K, 19 - Rationalisation of excluding mother tongue: competition between languages and continuing to use the mother tongue language in school or at home reduces students’ exposure to the school language.
        
        H&K, 20 - there also is little awareness among teachers and school administrators that such incursions of the rights of students and their parents may inflict harm. Many teachers are genuinely convinced that they are acting in the best interests of the child.
        
        H&K, 12 - Policies behind language exclusion are not necessarily motivated by an intent to annihilate cultural identity. The policy is often pursued in the purported best interests of the child. There is a persistent belief among educators, policy makers, as well as many parents, that immersion in the dominant language and ‘forgetting’ one’s mother tongue is the only way to achieve economic and social success.
        
        speaks to SCI's policy
        
        Cummins, 16 - Whether we do it intentionally or inadvertently, when we destroy children’s language and rupture their relationship with parents and grandparents, we are contradicting the very essence of education.
      - Cummins, 20 - When the message, implicit or explicit, communicated to children in the school is “Leave your language and culture at the schoolhouse door”, children also leave a central part of who they are - their identities - at the school-....house door. When they feel this rejection, they are much less likely to participate actively and confidently in classroom instruction.
  - - - Recognition of language/ identity/ culture
        
        Nijpels, 30 - Encouraging students to take pride in their language and culture reinforces their sense of who they are as individuals and their place in the 21st century. As educators we recognize the need to help and support our students’ mother tongue development
        
        Carder, 7 - The programme of linguistic and cultural awareness training for staff will form an integral part of the school’s in-service training.
        
        Carder, 8 - Awareness is a key to the whole issue of bilingualism.
        
        16 - School staff need to understand the importance of children maintaining their mother tongue, and parents’ awareness has to be raised.
        
        Carder, 26 - The first step is to heighten awareness amongst the whole community of the matters just raised: that for International School students to experience long-term success there should be a socio-culturally supportive school environment that promotes a linguistic, academic and cognitive programme in both mother tongue and second language.
        
        Carder, 24 - not so much an issue at SCI:
        In International Schools mainstream teachers don’t always feel the need to understand their students’ language background and to develop the necessary techniques to be able to teach them appropriately; it might be necessary to overcome resistance by some mainstream subject teachers who express their reluctance to take this on...Training might well reverse this situation
        
        Carder, 27 - teachers will always be on the lookout for ways to include you and your cultural and linguistic capital in the current theme
        
        Cummins, 19 - Teachers can also help children retain and develop their mother tongues by communicating to them strong affirmative messages about the value of knowing additional languages and the fact that bilingualism is an important linguistic and intellectual accomplishment.
        
        Cummins, 20 - It is not enough for teachers to be passively accepting of children’s linguistic and cultural diversity in the school. They must be proactive and take the initiative to affirm children’s linguistic identity by having posters in the various languages of the community around the school, encouraging children to write in their mother tongues in addition to the majority school language (e.g. write and publish pupil-authored bilingual books), and generally create an instructional climate where the linguistic and cultural experience of the whole child is actively accepted and validated.
        
        Cummins, 20 - children’s cultural and linguistic experience in the home is the foundation of their future learning and we must build on that foundation rather than undermine it
      - Nijpels, 31 - Implicit in the policy is an inclusive approach while learning English, and students being allowed to speak their own languages outside the classroom
      - Nijpels, 30 - A language policy where EAL and mother tongue are the cornerstones of implementation; this policy is not incorporated with a Learning Support or Special Needs policy
      - Nijpels, 31 - The entire philosophy of this approach is based on reinforcing mother tongue (MT) development where all languages have equal value.
      - HM, 73 - Although we want the children to learn English it is important that they maintain their mother tongue to remain connected to their family and to avoid a sense of alienation that is detrimental to a child’s sense of well-being.
        
        The visibility of linguistic and cultural diversity at international schools sends a strong message to the families about the value of languages and cultures. This starts from school policies and classroom practices.
      - Cummins, 20 - When educators within a school develop language policies and organize their curriculum and instruction in such a way that the linguistic and cultural capital of children and communities is strongly affirmed in all the interactions of the school, then the school is rejecting the negative attitudes and ignorance about diversity that exist in the wider society. In challenging coercive relations of power, the school is holding a mirror up to bilingual children of who they are and who they can become within this society.
    - - Cris, 13 - The third approach is the ‘parallel’ approach. Schools that use this method timetable mother tongue lessons into the school day. Normally this is done only for the major language groups represented in the student body. Students do not get ‘credit’ for these lessons, and they are outside the official curriculum. This method has many benefits, the main benefits being that qualified teachers are used for the mother tongue lessons, and that the school is visibly supporting the role of mother tongue in education. This means that the students are more likely to value and continue with their own language, and the teaching level will permit them to become academically proficient in their mother tongue as well.
        
        Cris, 13 - The final approach is the ‘integrated’ approach. This method is again generally only used for a small number of well-represented mother tongue languages. In this approach, mother tongue lessons are a part of the core curriculum, assessed by the school and often accredited by an outside organisation. In some cases, this may involve students obtaining a bilingual diploma; in others the accreditation is linked to the education system in the ‘home country’ of the language. This method has the most potential for positive results. In addition to the quality of teaching, the links to core curriculum and accreditation send a very clear message to students and parents about the value of mother tongue and the usefulness of graduating with two ‘academic’ languages.
        
        Cris, 13 - Drawbacks. These are mainly to do with cost and ease or difficulty of implementation and staffing. Schools beginning the journey towards an inclusive approach to languages will often use different approaches along the way, and the final program may also be a combination of approaches, in order to best meet the needs of students in diverse schools.
        
        Nijpels, 30 - budgets and time often cited as reasons for non-implementation of such programs.
        
        Nijpels, 30 - Budgets and time management can be manipulated. Yes, it is harder in small schools....However, they correspondingly need to understand what mother tongue programs contribute to student learning and the success of their academic programs.
      - Scott, 22 - we are teaching our learners to be bilingual not by offering one language at the expense of the other but by actively supporting the development of both.
        
        Carder, 12 - do everything possible to give non-English speakers the chance to reach their academic potential in English without sacrificing their native tongue
      - Scott, 22 - Question for SCI:
        how do we adjust our practice in schools to ensure we support each learner’s home language when, as a teacher, we often don’t speak their languages?
      - Jackson. 25 - Importance of mother tongue and shifting mentality:
        need for curriculum coordinators and school administrators to value the importance of a mother tongue programme. With their support it is possible to train and encourage mainstream teachers in supporting mother tongue language learners
      - HB, 75 - It is important to practise ‘additive bilingualism’, that is when the second language is learned without neglecting the maintenance and development of the first.
        
        Jackson, 25 - additive bilingualism – acquiring one language while maintaining another
        
        Milo, 252 - While they attempt to become proficient in English, the mother tongue development of many students becomes neglected. This is unfortunate because for students who are not native English speakers, it is equally important to master the new language of instruction as it is to maintain their mother tongue. Only if they continue to have opportunities to develop their first language skills in secondary school will they become fully bilingual.
        
        Why we need a Mother Tongue program:
        Milo, 253 - There is a strong correlation between mother tongue development and second-language acquisition.
        
        253 - That means that second-language acquisition could be hindered by a lack of development of the mother tongue.
      - Carder, 12 - Re ESLs quickly picking up the language:
        Such a view cannot be supported by research or experience; there must be well-devised, theoretically and practically based programmes to educate second language learners; simply temporarily supporting ESL students will not suffice.
      - Research indicates...
        
        Wellbeing and academic performance
        
        Carder, 26 - Thus the cognitive base should be enriched in the mother tongue and added to meaningfully in the second language. A large body of research has shown that students who achieve full cognitive development in two languages have cognitive advantages over monolinguals
        
        Carder, 13 - Research has also shown that well-balanced bilinguals may have advantages over monolinguals in thinking and in academic achievement...by learning another language such children have two ways instead of one of naming many objects and thinking many thoughts
        
        HB, 77 - well-balanced bilinguals may have advantages over monolinguals in thinking and in academic achievement. By learning another language a child has more than one way of naming objects and thinking about them. It is important to give nonnative speakers the opportunity of reaching their full academic potential in English without sacrificing their mother tongue
        
        Carder, 25 - It is now accepted that in order to assure cognitive and academic success in the second language, the students’ first language – oral and written – must be developed to a high cognitive level.
        
        H&K, 7 - Decades of academic research across continents support findings that multilingual programmes that encourage the development of students’ mother tongue as part of their learning experience improves their well-being as well as their academic performance.
        
        H&R, 12 - Students who are allowed to learn through their mother tongue in multilingual education programmes better understand academic concepts, possess greater confidence, and have improved learning outcomes.
        
        F&F, 205 - The penalties of abandoning the development of the first language, or abandoning it altogether, have been widely bruited and educators in international schools need to be very aware of them
        
        F&F, 207 - Research indicates that students who are learning in a language other than their mother tongue develop proficiency in the language of instruction more quickly and effectively if they maintain and develop proficiency in their first language.
        
        Cummins, 17 - Bilingualism has positive effects on children’s linguistic and educational development. When children continue to develop their abilities in two or more languages throughout their primary school years, they gain a deeper understanding of language and how to use it effectively.
        
        Madrinan, 53 - Research suggests that the first language should not be banned in the second-language classroom but that neither should its use be constantly encouraged, otherwise the mother tongue may replace the target language rather than support it.
        
        Cummins, 2001
        
        Cummins, 17 - The level of development of children’s mother tongue is a strong predictor of their second language development. Children who come to school with a solid foundation in their mother tongue develop stronger literacy abilities in the school language.
        
        18 - both languages nurture each other when the educational environment permits children access to both languages.
        
        Cummins, 18 - Bilingual children perform better in school when the school effectively teaches the mother tongue and, where appropriate, develops literacy in that language. By contrast, when children’s mother tongue is encouraged to atrophy and its development stagnates, children’s personal and conceptual foundation for learning is undermined.
        
        Cummins, 18 - well-implemented bilingual programs can promote literacy and subject matter knowledge in a minority language without any negative effects on children’s development in the majority language
        
        Milo, 251 - lack of sufficient knowledge of their mother tongue impacts their development of literacy and their academic achievement in general.
      - HB, 75 - Teachers need to build on a child’s cultural and linguistic experience in the home as it is the foundation of future learning. By having more than one language a child has a greater understanding of how language works.
      - Milo, 253 - In situations where students come from a language background that is different from the language of instruction, they will need help to reach proficiency in their mother tongue as well as in English.
        
        SCI context
      - Milo, 253 - Therefore, promoting the mother tongue should become a priority in international schools.
      - Milo, 260 - In order to be successful in their studies, students need to be proficient in academic language. For students who are enrolled in international education at a very early age, maintaining their mother tongue is the key for developing a second language. These two languages are interdependent. Students use a second language to continue the conceptual development that they started in their mother tongue. It is no surprise that children who have a solid foundation in their mother tongue develop stronger literacy skills in their second language.
      - Milo, 260 - Being proficient in a language means being able to speak, read, and write on a variety of academic topics. Therefore, schools need to provide programs that not only support basic competency in the mother tongue, but instruction that is age-appropriate and at the level carried out for native speakers in their national educational system. Developing a mother tongue program would require employing different mother tongue teachers and establishing practices that would allow sufficient time for students to achieve age-appropriate competence in their mother tongue.
    - - Jackson, 25 - Conducting parent information sessions will assist parents in understanding the cognitive and academic research that supports the necessity of having a strong foundation in the mother tongue language in order to learn a new language. Parents must adopt good language policies at home in order to help their children develop good literacy skills in their mother tongue language.
        
        Jackson, 25 - The importance of additive bilingualism...must be instilled in the parents in order to support a strong mother tongue programme.
        
        Nijpels, 31 - An information program for parents at the admissions point of entry and at information evenings throughout the school year, to support understanding of the importance of continued mother tongue language development
      - Carder, 10 - Thus parents placing their children in an International School have a right to know:
        • what sort of programme the school offers for educating their children in English, where this is not the child’s first language;
        • how the school has trained its teachers to educate bilingual children, and those who do not have English as their first language; and
        • what programme the school offers for maintaining children’s mother tongues where these are not English.
      - Carder, 28 - Parents must also take a leading role in insisting on good language development programs for their children. Many parents are reluctant, unsure or too polite to put their case.
      - Carder, 163-4 - Parents of children who are native speakers of English can be made aware of the benefits of bilingualism by learning the host-country language, and... also of the rich background their children will be exposed to through contact with others from various linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Attitude must be addressed: much of the children’s motivation will come from their parents.
      - HB, 77 - It is also important that parents are aware of the advantages of having their children maintain their mother tongue at home; they may feel pressure to expose their children as much as possible to the school language to learn it more quickly.
      - Parents as Partners
        
        F&F, 205 - It is vital therefore that parents become partners with educators in their children’s learning. In this way they can jointly support the learning in the child’s first language and become an essential link between the child’s family and the school.
        
        Cummins, 19 - To reduce the extent of language loss, parents should establish a strong home language policy and provide ample opportunities for children to expand the functions for which they use the mother tongue
  - - - First language retention
      - Equity and access for ESL students
      - Second language acquisition
        
        We employ immersion
      - Bilingualism/multilingualism
      - Denial of the mother tongue
    - - Approach to Mother Tongue
        
        Cris, 11 - Spectrum of approaches to mother tongue:
        Within the schools themselves, however, we can observe a wide range of approaches to supporting cultural and linguistic diversity. In no area is this more apparent than in that of mother tongue. On the one hand, there are still schools that observe a strict ‘target-language only’ approach in classrooms or in the school as a whole. On the other end of the spectrum are schools that embrace and support the languages of all their students, and consider that development of the mother tongue is as important as the development of the school language.
        
        Cris, 13 - ‘no approach’ approach. This is clearly the easiest method for schools, as it absolves them from any responsibility for the mother tongue growth of their students. Conversely, this approach is likely to have negative effects on the mother tongue, depending on the level of support for mother tongue growth outside the school from family and community, and may also have a negative effect on the development of the school language.
        
        Cris, 13 - The second model is an ‘extra-curricular’ approach. Many schools choose this option as it is fairly easy to implement, and often implementation is left to parents and community groups. Common issues with this approach are related to quality control of teaching, matching pedagogy to the school model, and student motivation. The last is an important point, as offering mother tongue as an extra-curricular activity tends to send a message to students that it is ‘optional’ and therefore not as important as the school language.
        
        issue for CAL - cultural capital
        
        Carder, 4 - in some schools the matter of mother tongue instruction will often be completely ignored.
        
        Parents
        
        Scott, 22 - ‘should my learners be allowed to use their mother tongue in class?’. It’s a topic that raises strong feelings, especially amongst parents who are from the host country of the school, speaking the host country language with their child and sending their child to an English-medium school largely because they want their child to learn English. They often feel that they don’t want their child to speak anything other than English during the school day as they receive enough exposure to their home language at other times.
        
        In some cases, teachers have tended to agree with parents as they see children who are quite able in English, but are using their home language so much that it appears to be to the detriment of their development in English.
        
        Jackson, 25 - The third point centres on educating parents in the importance of allowing students to use their mother tongue language in order to gain access to the school curriculum. Often parents are reluctant to embrace this. They want their child to learn English and believe that reading, writing and speaking only in English is the most efficient way of ensuring this. At times, parents can see education as a competitive area.
        
        Nijpels, 30 - Scapegoating parents for avoiding mother tongue investigation:
        We are often told that parents are the reason for mother tongue programs taking a backseat to academics. Some parents perceive their children’s futures being based on their English fluency, but that should not preclude developing their mother tongue.
        
        Carder, 3 - IS context:
        large majority of these schools – over 90% – offer an education solely through the medium of English...Many parents are more than happy with this situation; they see an effective education in English as the best means of ensuring an affluent future for their children in the new ‘globalised’ world.
        
        Carder, 13 - many parents do not understand what their children go through when they arrive in a totally new environment
        
        Carder, 16 - many parents see English as the path to success and insist on its exclusive use by their children.
        
        Milo, 260 - In cases when there is no adequate mother tongue support, parents perceive the mother tongue as an obstacle to their children’s second-language development....Parents transfer those beliefs to their children and by doing so they place value neither on their culture nor language.
      - H&K, 5 - Contrary to what is generally believed by educators, preventing children from using their home language does not improve their educational performance, but rather has harmful social and emotional effects.
      - F7F, 204 - Increasingly in international schools, the children entering have little or no knowledge of the language of instruction, and schools recognize their obligation to make the transition from Mother Tongue to English as gently and effectively as possible.
        
        describes SCI
- - - - Hemara, 2013, 64 - KLP demonstrates: 'the ‘traditional western’ leadership discourses that are privileged, and to highlight the subordinate positioning of Māori leadership discourse in this mainstream policy for educational leadership.'
        
        Hemara, 70/ - document focuses solely on the principal as the heroic leader
        
        Heroic leadership marginalises Maori collective leadership values
        
        McGrath, 2014, # - This model was fraught with challenges for Māori educational leaders as what counted as ‘effective’ leadership was premised upon western notions of educational leadership theory and practice.
        
        McGrath, 2014, # - The validity of educational leadership knowledge endorsed by ministerial reports such as the Kiwi Leadership for Principals created tensions for Māori leaders as the knowledge it endorsed became a form of capital and had currency when defining success or effectiveness. The control of knowledge was a critical factor in enhancing the ideological dominance of one group of people over less powerful groups.
        
        Hemara, 69/ - Describes Western leadership as individual/ hierachical, and Maori as collective/ horizontal
        
        Dicskon, 742 - Define collectivism vs. individualism:
        Cultures characterized by individualism can be seen as loosely knit social frameworks in which people are supposed to take care of themselves and look after their own interests and those of their close family only. A tight social framework with strong and cohesive in-groups that are opposed to out-groups is a key characteristic of high collectivism.
        
        Hemara, 64 - how the Ministry through COHERENCE IN POLICY reinforces certain
        knowledges as truth.
        
        76 - undervalued, invisible and subordinate position in mainstream educational leadership policy.