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EXAM V - Coggle Diagram

- - - - N
      - Positive impact on predator
      - Negatively impacted by predator
    - - Negative impact on prey
      - Positively impacted by prey
      - P
  - - - J-shaped curve
      - Unlimited resources
    - - S-shaped curve
      - Typical of a population that self-regulated and has a carrying capacity (K)
        
        When capacity is overshot, results are a die off
  - - - Ix = proportion of individuals that survive from birth to age x (nx/n0)
      - Fx = Average number of offspring born to a female at age x
      - Sx = proportion of individuals of age x that survive to age x+1 (nx+1/nx)
      - Ix(fx) = Average number of offspring per capita @ age x
      - Nx = number of individuals alive at age x
      - Ix(fx)x = Average number of offspring per capita @ time x weighted by age x
      - X = age
      - G = sum of ix(fx)x / R0
      - R0 = sum of Ix(Fx)
      - r = ln(R0)/G
  - - - r = intrinsic growth rate
      - n = prey
      - dN/dt = rate of change in prey pop. over time
      - a = predator attack rate per capita
    - - f = constant, predators efficiency at converting eaten prey to predators
      - q = predators per capita mortality rate
      - dP/dt = rate of change with time of predator pop.
- - - - Allele frequency
        
        Number of copies of an allele in a pop. / total alleles
      - Genotype frequency
        
        Number of genotypes of one type / total # individuals
  - - - Dominant = p
      - p + q = 1
      - Recessive = q
      - p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
      - p^2 = genotypic freq. of p
      - q^2 = genotypic freq. of q
      - 2pq = genotypic freq. of heteroxygotes
  - - - Genetic Drift
        
        Acts most strongly in small pops. relative to large
        
        Bottleneck effect
        
        Large pop. diminished suddenly
        
        Natural disaster
        
        Migration
        
        May increase in size again but is unlikely to regain original diversity
        
        Random loss of alleles
      - Migration #
        
        Movement of alleles into and out of a pop.
        
        Can be impeded by the environment and life history
        
        Repercussions for GMO and climate change and specialization
      - Natural selection
        
        Overall vigor of the pop. grows
        
        So does the pop. size
        
        One allele selectively advantageous
        
        Artificial selection: Selection by humans
        
        Patterns of natural selection
        
        Stabilizing: Shows favor towards non-extreme ends of trait
        
        Disruptive: Shows favor towards extreme ends of trait
        
        Directional: Graph will shift direction
      - Nonrandom mating
        
        Pollinator vectors (pollination syndromes)
        
        Some individuals reproduce more than others based on their phenotypes
        
        Plants "choose" mates
        
        Male - male competition
        
        Female chooses
      - Mutation
        
        Some are apparent in phenotype
        
        Source of all new alleles
        
        Change in one of the nucleic acids
        
        Must be in gametes to be inherited
- - - - Crossing Over
        
        Results in new combos not present in parental cells
        
        Usually at least one chiasma occurs between every homologous chromosome
        
        During Prophase I: Mixes the genes present in homologous chromosomes
      - Sexual Reproduction
        
        New combos of alleles from each parent (Promotes heterozygosity)
        
        Advantages:
        
        Bet-hedging to novel environment
        
        Multiple deleterious alleles can be bunched together and eliminated
        
        Genetic diversity
        
        Escape host-parasite negative impacts
        
        Pollination
      - Independent assortment
        
        During Metaphase II: Orientation of chromatids is random
        
        Possibilities of assortment a 2^n (2^46 for humans)
        
        During metaphase 1: Orientation of Bivalents is random
        
        RANDOM RANDOM RANDOM!
    - - Segregation
        
        Offspring inherit 2 alleles for a gene (one from each parent)
        
        During meiosis (2 members of a gene pair separate from each other)
        
        Each gamete contains only one allele for each gene
        
        Each gamete has an equal chance to inherit either one of the genes
        
        Alleles are segregated from one another in meiosis
      - Independent Assortment
        
        Gene pairs that are not related (homologs) segregate independently
        
        Gene pairs that are not linked segregate independently
        
        Evidence provided from a dihybrid cross
        
        3:1 Phenotypic ratio
      - Dominance
        
        Phenotypes determined by these alleles (& the environment)
        
        There is no guarantee that an allele will manifest
        
        Each individual has unique genotype (made up of different alleles)
        
        Heterozygosity
        
        One of two alleles is dominant
        
        Other is recessive
        
        Homozygosity: Both alleles are the same
      - Extensions to Mendelian Genetics #
        
        Incomplete dominance
        
        Phenotype of heterozygote is intermediate between those of parent homozygotes
        
        Multiple alleles
        
        Punnett square theoretical crossing works similar
        
        Breeding experiments to determine dominance
        
        Many pops. have more than 2 alleles for a particular locus
        
        Figuring out alleles is complex
        
        Mutations
        
        Point mutation: Single nucleotide change
        
        Chromosome mutations:
        
        Duplication: Part of the chromosome has doubled
        
        Inversion: Piece rotates 180 degrees
        
        Deletion: Segments of chromosome is lost (or deleted)
        
        Translocation: Exchange of parts between 2 nonhomologous chromosomes
        
        Transposons: Moveable genetic element & jumping genes
        
        Changes in genetic makeup of an individual
        
        No crossing over
        
        Fail to mix alleles across homologs
        
        Chromosomes inherited same as parent
        
        Only 2 gamete types possible rather than 4
        
        Polygenetic Inheritance
        
        Example: Abscisic acid
        
        Most traits
        
        Phenotype is cumulative result of combined effects of many genes
        
        Continuous variation
        
        Multiple genes for one character
        
        Pops. tend to have normal distribution
        
        Epistasis: One gene interacts with another and may interfere or mask it
        
        Linkage
        
        4 haploid genotypes (Not produced in equal numbers)
        
        Recombinants less abundant
        
        Parentals more abundant
        
        Pleiotropy
        
        Inheritance of a single gene which visibly influences several traits
        
        Single gene with multiple effects on a genotype
        
        Polyploidy
        
        Autopolyploid: Failed meiosis (Self fertilization)
        
        Allopolyploid: Meiotic error; Mismatch during mating (Second mating creates pairs)
        
        Having more than two copies of a chromosome (3n+)