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- - - - https://leanfactories.com/nemawashi-model-for-decision-making/
    - - refers to the method by which a tree, especially an old tree, is transplanted from one place to another
        
        The term is used metaphorically in modern Japanese society to mean laying the groundwork for achieving one's goal, especially agreement in decision making
  - - - (the philosophy of continuous improvement) and respect and empowerment for people, particularly line workers.
        
        Kaizen itself is simply bit-by-bit improvement in practices and day-to-day accumulation of the results which are implemented as participative activities at worksite of Japanese companies.
        
        ‘Kai’ means ‘change’ and ‘zen’ means ‘for the better’. It is a philosophy that helps to ensure maximum quality, the elimination of waste, and improvements in efficiency, both in terms of equipment and work procedures.
  - - - The Toyota Production System (TPS) is a perfect example of how Kaizen works, and how it can improve your company’s operations. TPS relies on employees to keep an eye out for areas where waste can be removed, thus increasing efficiency. Each employee takes ownership of their work, which they look to make work easier on themselves, as well as on the company. Toyota continues to deliver top-of-the-line products because each employee in the production system is encouraged to offer suggestions to improve processes and streamline production to consistently improve the quality of our forklifts.
  - - - Perhaps the most important cultural trait underlying Kaizen’s success in Japan lies in a pair of values deeply rooted in the Confucian ethic: thrift and perseverance.
    - - This dimension deals with a society’s tolerance for ambiguity. It indicates to what extent a culture induces its members to feel either comfortable or uncomfortable in unstructured situations. A strong need to avoid uncertainty means, among other things, a preference for sticking to the rules and for meticulousness.
        
        The importance of this particular trait is evidenced by the fact that it led to the enrichment of an originally foreign technique: the fact that the Japanese imported the concepts of quality assurance and suggestion systems is widely documented
    - - Individualism (and its opposite, collectivism) is the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups
        
        On the individualist side, we find societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after him/herself and his/her immediate family.
        
        On the collectivist side, we find societies in which people are integrated from birth onwards into strong, cohesive in-groups, which continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty
        
        Kaizen’s principal leverage lies in the group, as opposed to the individual
        
        An interesting example is provided by Renault’s production facilities in Rovaz, Slovenia. French management applied the same Kaizen techniques used in the plants in their homeland but attained better results. According to Globokar (1996), the match between Kaizen and Slovenian collectivism holds the answer to why this factory quickly became one of Renault’s highest quality factories.
    - - represents the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations or institutions (like the family or the school) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally
    - - Of all countries that were represented in Hofstede’s study, Japan scored highest on the masculinity index
        
        workers in rather feminine countries to be relatively less performance oriented, more inclined to ‘work in order to live’ than the opposite
        
        lead to lower response and implementation levels.
      - feminine societies stress both equality and solidarity, and show a strong belief in group decisions, all three elements being central to Kaizen
        
        The successful implementation of KOSS in Singapore (MAS = 48), Taiwan (MAS = 45), South Korea (MAS = 39), and Thailand (MAS = 34) allows one to infer that these three elements outweigh the lower performance orientation. Outside SE Asia, the good results achieved, for example in Fuji’s operation in the Netherlands (MAS = 14), also indicates that low masculinity scores do not hinder KOSS success.
- - - - Outside the country, the term generally refers to informal alliances between more than two organizations.
    - - The strong interrelations of the Japanese keiretsu have been shown to increase the monitoring of managerial performance
  - - - are specific buyer–supplier relationships that define the structure
        of firms in the Japanese automotive industry.
        
        long-term vertical corporate linkage endows suppliers with a competitive advantage, even when arm’s length transactions prevail in the industry
    - - The purpose of horizontal keiretsus is to distribute goods around the world
    - - The automobile company Toyota is an example of a vertical keiretsu.
        
        Toyota has benefitted from the trust, collaboration, and educational support that are hallmarks of the keiretsu system: Its supplier relationships are more open, international, and cost-efficient than ever before
        
        Toyota relies on suppliers and manufacturers for parts; employees for production; real estate for dealerships; steel, plastics, and electronics suppliers for cars; and wholesalers.
        
        While these ancillary companies operate within the vertical keiretsu of Toyota, they are members of the larger horizontal keiretsu, (although much lower on the organizational chart).
      - Mitsubishi là động lực đằng sau của mạng lưới keiretsu ngang có thể coi là lớn nhất và nổi tiếng nhất của Nhật Bản. Ngân hàng Tokyo-Mitsubishi đứng trên đỉnh của keiretsu. Mitsubishi Motors và Mitsubishi Trust and Banking cũng là một phần của nhóm nòng cốt này, tiếp theo là Công ty bảo hiểm nhân thọ Meiji, cung cấp bảo hiểm cho tất cả các thành viên trong nhóm. Mitsubishi Shoji là công ty thương mại cho Mitsubishi keiretsu.
        
        Chúng hướng tới mục đích giúp đỡ lẫn nhau trong việc phân phối hàng hóa trên toàn thế giới. Chúng có thể tìm kiếm thị trường mới cho các công ty keiretsu, giúp sát nhập các công ty keiretsu ở các quốc gia khác và ký hợp đồng với các công ty trên toàn cầu để cung cấp hàng hóa được sử dụng cho ngành công nghiệp tại Nhật Bản.
  - - - Companies in the keiretsu can leverage each other’s expertise to become stronger and better
      - information shared among customers, suppliers, and employees within the keiretsu can lead to increased efficiency
        
        investment decisions can be made faster, and suppliers, employees, and customers know the purposes and goals of those investments.
      - Forming an alliance also limits the threat of competition and makes it more difficult for its members to be subject to takeover attempts by outsiders.
      - the reduction of costs due to dealing with intra-keiretsu firms can increase efficiency within the supply chain.
      - The keiretsu relationship, through cross-shareholding, financial and personnel ties, could improve monitoring, and therefore, improve the characteristics of analysts’ forecasts
    - - their large size makes it difficult for keiretsus to adjust quickly to market changes and that limited competition leads to inefficient practices.
      - easy access to capital
        
        Close relationships with a bank might encourage a company to embark on risky, debt-fueled strategies that an outside institution would probably never help to finance.
- - - - It is believed that workers stay at one company even though they are dissatisfied with their present job and working conditions (Matanle 2003). There are several reasons for this.
        
        the employment system is highly embedded in the philosophy that once employees are recruited to a company they rarely quit the job. Since Japanese firms have been celebrated as clans and enterprise communities, their strong internal culture binds employees in a reciprocal lifetime commitment
        
        under the lifetime employment system, students are hired by companies immediately after graduating from high schools and colleges. These new recruits are trained in different company
        departments and work groups where they have the opportunity to acquire different skills and become acquainted with a number of co-workers.
        
        Through this process, they develop unique relationships, which motivate them to stay in the job for a long time.
        
        helps firms train people, aids in sharing information among employees and develops employees’ interest in work.
  - - - (+)
        
        Retains the services of employees in times of labour shortage
        
        Maintains optimal control over the individual and their training, carrier development and compensation
        
        Able to plan for the long term and invest in its human resources accordingly allowing it to develop a strong future workforce
      - (-)
        
        Labour cost
        
        Access to suitable labour and skils
        
        Talent mobility constraints
        
        Homogenization mechanism
    - - (+)
        
        Job security in time of labour surplus and Commitment from the organization toward the future development of the employee's knowledge and skills.
        
        the company provides the whole social existence, or community from which employees derive their identity and their selfworth
        
        As a community the company exercises shared authority and control in a society based upon group norms and social structure
      - (-)
        
        disadvantages for the would-be job
        changer.
        
        the individual
        also faces financial disincentives to changing employers
        
        it is very difficult to move up to a better
        position or more prestigious employer
  - - - Company scale
        
        It's easier to adopt LTE in large companies than in small to medium sized companies
      - Occupation
        
        The practice is strongly maintained by white-collar workers
      - Industry
        
        Is more likely to adopted in the manufacturing industry than other
      - General human capital can also influences
- - - - nemawashi being an ongoing organizational process rather than a one-time event.
        
        In fact, nemawashi is not completely unknown in American organizations, and thus there are several phrases in English that have a similar meaning to nemawashi, such as “consensus-building”, “getting people on the bandwagon”, “obtaining buy-in”, “sending up a trial balloon”, “testing the waters”, “getting everyone on the same page”, “greasing the skids”, “behind the scenes persuasion”, and “lobbying”.
      - It is considered an important element in any major change in the Japanese business environment before any formal steps are taken.
      - Ne means root or base, and mawashi means to go around. One to two years before a tree is to be transplanted, the roots are cut circumferentially around the base of the trunk. The tree responds by sending out many new roots that insure the tree's survival when it is later transplanted
        
        Through nemawashi one networks with important people and builds consensus through personal lobbying of individual decision makers. By laying the groundwork with effective nemawashi, one overcomes tough bureaucratic barriers to approval.
- - - - The Japanese officially recognized karoshi as a fatal illness in 1989.
      - Its symptoms include high blood pressure and asthma-like problems. Most of the victims, in their prime working years in white-collar occupations, die from subarachonodial hemorrhage (stroke) or yocardial infarction (heart attack).
    - - In 2002, Kenichi Uchino, a 30-year-old quality-control manager at Toyota, collapsed and died after working over 80 hours unpaid overtime for six months. After this incident, Toyota announced it would begin monitoring their workers' health and pay for all of their overtime hours
- - - - are group decision-making processes in which participants develop and decide on proposals with the aim, or requirement, of acceptance by all
    - - https://japanintercultural.com/free-resources/articles/the-decision-making-process-in-japan/
      - In simple terms, consensus refers to agreement on some decision by all members of a group, rather than a majority or a select group of representatives. The consensus process is what a group goes through to reach this agreement. The assumptions, methods, and results are very different from traditional parliamentary procedure or majority voting methods.
    - - All parties agree with the proposed decision and are willing to carry it out
      - No one will block or obstruct the decision or its implementation
      - Everyone will support the decision and implement it.
  - - - More effective implementation
        
        When people's ideas and concerns are taken into account, then they are much more likely to actively participate in making something happen.
        
        If a participant with a minority position is overruled, they are naturally unlikely to help carry out the decision with enthusiasm.
      - Building connection among the members.
        
        taking the time to find unity on how to processed before moving forward => It is a synthesizing process
        
        Voting creates winners and losers, thus it has an inherent polarizing effect.
      - Higher quality decisions:
        
        Integrating the wisdom of more people into the decision generally results in better, smarter, more “co-intelligent” decisions that serve a group well
        into the future
    - - Agreeing to Bad Decisions
        
        Consensus decision-making does not always lead to good decisions, especially if the group is relatively homogenous.
      - Groupthink
        
        the desire to reach a consensus can cause people to ignore indications that what is proposed is a bad idea. The team pushes aside any data that may derail the consensus decision.
      - Compromise Solutions
        
        Consensus decision-making can cause a group to agree to the lowest common denominator—a solution or decision that satisfies the team members' need to agree—but it may not be optimal for the business.
        
        in business, not every factor, department, person, or decision in an organization is equally important
      - Business Is Hierarchical
        
        this power differential allows the powerful to heavily influence the less powerful to reach “consensus.”
        
        the powerful can point out that “everyone agreed to this solution.” In other words, the aura of consensus decision-making allows the powerful to avoid responsibility.
      - Time consuming
        
        “By the time we have made a decision, the window of opportunity has closed”
- - - - For this reason, when a Japanese person joins a company, he or she is expected to be loyal to the company and to serve the company even at the expense of the individual and sacrifice of their personal life, which seems to be very reasonable under this GIVE & TAKE relationship.
      - Under the lifetime employment practice, the company essentially GIVE employees “job security (until retirement)” and take from them “long-term contributions” and “patience and perseverance” (where employees cannot do what they want to do).
        
        The Japanese-style management still enable companies to seek loyalty of their employees, reward those who stayed the longest, and provide them with hefty pensions upon retirement
        
        Jobs - oriented management
      - The one possible answer is that lifetime employment, which became common practice in the right up to the bubble bursting around the early 1980s, has demanded behavior that prioritizes “the good of the company.”
      - Salaries for regular employees no longer continue to rise until retirement, and the probability of restructuring, such as the early retirement incentive program, has increased before retirement is reached. In other words, the traditional GIVE has become unstable.
  - - - reasons why Japanese people cannot leave their jobs by their wills.
        
        First, compared to companies in other countries, the employment environment is equal and more friendly. They lose the courage to expose themselves to competition from the outside world if they are lukewarm.
        
        At Japanese companies, salaries don’t rise dramatically, but if you can’t do your job, you aren’t immediately fired, and make room for you. It’s a comfortable place to work for people who want to take it easy.
        
        On top of that, the job market is not as fluid as it used to be. Even if you make an effort to move out of the company, mid-career hires are treated as outsiders, making it hard to keep your head above water.
- - - - haragei (an implicit way of communication) which refers to the way of exchanging feelings and thoughts implicitly among Japanese people. It is non-verbal because an open declaration of intent is explosive.
      - sometimes creates problems in cross-cultural communication.
        
        the Japanese prefer to exchange their feelings and thoughts in an implicit way.
      - The Japanese are generally tolerant of ambiguity in communication and decision making. This may be the reason why they avoid uncertainty at the highest level compared to other nations such as the US, UK, Canada, etc
    - - It is a core Japanese value that is spread throughout the organizational life of Japan even today. The concept of lifetime employment, the seniority-based evaluation system, and the paternalistic approach of human resource management in organizations reflects organizational familism
      - ccording to familism dichotomy, Japanese organizations are regarded not only as an economic entity; they are also more significantly social organizations which value social considerations when dealing with their members
    - - With the effect of Ie dichotomy sometimes the line between company life and private life becomes obscured, as company related activities take up time after normal working hours
      - Ie system also prevails in Japanese companies where the company is regarded as the family with all involved sacrificing their personal needs to protect the interests of the company
      - With this notion, the collective utility of the family is regarded as more important than the utility of the individual members. Traditionally, the Ie concept evolved from the rise of a samurai class to defend their land
    - - in the business world, the sempai-kohai system has a powerful influence on human relations, such as in meetings where a junior employee will take a seat near the door, which is called shimoza, while the eldest person (often the boss) will be seated next to any important guests in a position called kamiza. They simply listen to their superiors, flatter them, or express opinions that were formulated behind the scenes by the influence of senior employees. Dore (1958) explains that ‘skill lies in giving the superior an escape route, and allowing it to appear that the final solution was what the superior first proposed’.
    - - *It is believed that Japanese managers consider harmony at work more than their American counterparts
        
        Relationships with employees, customers and suppliers are regarded as most important in Japanese companies. For Japanese managers, the challenge is how to develop harmony with these groups for the long-term growth and prosperity of the organization. Relations among employees are highly regarded and respected as important to maintain harmony and teamwork
    - - The Japanese believe that the maximization of collective utility and long-term relationships goes hand-in-hand
      - Society is recognized as mostly cultured, where people live in harmony characterized by feelings of collectivism. People are primarily group-oriented and, therefore, they prefer group harmony over individualism. Most consider that it is important to adhere to the values of the groups to which they belong. It has been argued that the Japanese like intimate, exclusive groups composed of people from the same region or graduates from the same school
    - - Vertical relationships apply mostly to respecting senior citizens whereas horizontal social relationships are found among workgroups and colleagues
      - Oyabun controls and provides instructions to the kobun in the society, and is respected for providing valuable guidance
      - It is assumed that senior citizens worked harder and longer in the past for their country and therefore they deserve a high level of respect and dignity. On the organizational level, senior-junior relations are defined in the form of oyabun-kobun. This means that relations with a superior are regarded as more important than relations with one's co-workers.
    - - The status of women is also reflected in the work place. The wage gap between men and women is much greater than in the West
        
        There was a widespread belief among employers that female workers would leave their jobs in their mid 20s once they were married
        
        women accounted for two-thirds of non-regularworkers in 2017, according to the OECD, meaning they were much more likely to be in lower-paidand less secure jobs. Furthermore, the proportion of female ministers in Japan was only 15.8% atthe start of 2020. culturally, it is still common for women to give up regular employment positionsafter childbirth, since workers who can work long hours are valued and tacitly prioritised in manycompanies.
- - - - It refers to the practice of promoting employees on the basis of seniority in the firm rather on the basis of merit.
        
        This type of promotion system is sometimes described as an “escalator,” suggesting that one steps on at the bottom and then automatically rises within the organization
      - Based on the number of years of worker’s years in an organization, he or she will benefit from this reward system. Hence, senior employees are given opportunities to obtain additional education and training privileges as benefits for their tenure and loyalty to the company, a big factor that leads to lifetime employmen
      - the seniority-based reward system had two different aims.
        
        advance an employee's career and provide financial compensation based on broad social considerations and personal qualifications, such as the age and educational level of employees.
        
        to make extensive use of non-cash fringe benefits for employees and their families
      - The seniority-based system recognizes that ‘a man grows and matures on the human and technology levels as experiences accumulated through work increase, and this recognition is reflected in salary and promotion’.
      - the two versions of wage theory hat are unique to Japan
        
        salaries that increase in accordance with age and length of service
        
        the rewards that are not paid on the basis of the job performed
      - In spite of the popularity of the seniority-based system, concerns are growing in response to changes in the business environment, such as the globalization of economic activity, to achieve a competitive advantage it appears that the system may need to be reviewed. Many companies have already changed their wage systems to reflect individual performance and productivity.
    - - In the seniority system, the length of service (years working for the company) heavily determines both wage increases and promotions. Without long-term employment relationship between the employee and company secured in some way it would be impossible to maintain such a system
        
        Without lifetime employment, the seniority system would fail
    - - period saw the development of seniority-based pay systems as firms provided incentives to skilled blue-collar workers to remain with their firm at a time of skilled-labour shortages.