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Cognition - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Can’t encode new memories
      - Can recall events already in memory（implicit）
      - Caused by damage to the hippocampus
      - Can learn new skills, but won’t remember learning them
      - suggests that procedural memory is located elsewhere in the brain
    - - caused by an injury or the onset of a disease
    - - Fwe index much of our explicit memory using words that nonspeaking children have not learned.
      - the hippocampus is one of the last brain structures to mature.
    - - selective attention/age related decline
    - - 艾宾浩斯遗忘曲线
  - - - 学习新信息会干扰对旧信息的回忆
    - - 旧的影响学新的
  - - - Using distributed (spaced) practice
    - - Taking notes in your own words; apply concepts to your own life; form images.
    - - Mentally re-create the situation and the mood in which your original learning occurred.
        重现学习时的场景
    - - Chunking; make up stories with vivid images of the items
    - - Study before sleep (not seconds before)
        Don’t schedule back-to-back study times for topic that are likely to interfere with each other
    - - During sleep, the brain reorganizes and consolidates information for long-term memory
  - - - Hippocampus
        
        Hippocampus—a “save” button
        
        Left-hippocampus—verbal information
        Right-hippocampus——visual design/locations
      - the frontal lobes
        
        Recalling a password and holding it working memory——left frontal lobe
        
        Calling up a visual party scene--right
    - - Cerebellum
        
        help develop certain conditioned reflexes条件反射 (eyeblink)
      - Basal Ganglia基底神经节
        
        It receive input from cortex but don’t sending information back
        
        involved in motor movement, facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills
    - - emotion---Stressed hormones---provoke the amygdala to initiate a memory trace in the frontal lobes and basal ganglia.
        
        巨大的traumatic experience可以形成几乎不可磨灭的(难忘的)记忆
        
        Flashbulb memories
    - - memories serve to predict the future and to alert us to potential dangers.
    - - Neurons can strengthen connections between each other through repeated firings
      - 解答：Through repeated firings, the connection is strengthened, and the receiving neuron becomes more sensitive to the messages from the sending neuron. This strengthened connection might be related to the connections we make in our long-term memory.
- - - - the smallest units of sound used in a language
    - - the smallest unit of meaningful sound
    - - the order, set of rules in which words are spoken or written
  - - - 自发的，simply bunching the tongue
      - not an imitation of the adult speech可以自创
    - - changed to a trained ear that identify the household language
    - - They have already learned that sounds carry meanings.
      - 只说一个词去表达意思，通常是名词
    - - 他们开始用电报语言说出两个单词的句子。比如短信或电报。
  - - - theorized that humans are born with language acquisition devices (ability to learn language rapidly as children)
      - critical period for learning language may exist
      - all human languages do share some basic elements——universal grammar
  - - - 我们使用的语言可能会控制/限制我们的思维
        language determines the way we think
  - - - Broca’s area damage---impairing speaking
      - Wernicke’s area damage---impairing understanding
    - - never become as fluent as native speakers
      - 2nd language 有accent of 1st language
- - - - the cognitive rules we apply to stimuli from our environment
      - allow us to categorize and think about the objects, people, and ideas we encounter
      - may be based on prototypes
    - - what we think is the most typical example of a particular concept最典型的例子
    - - the mental pictures we create in our minds of the outside world
      - can involve any sense
  - - - a rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula or other fool proof method =Convergent thinking
      - ex: try every possible solution
      - 一步一步来，所有都考虑到
    - - rules of thumb经验法则抄近道
      - a rule that is generally true that we can use to make a judgment in a situation
    - - Continuingly trying different solutions until problem is solved
    - - not a strategy-based solution
  - - - 人们进行判断时，常依赖最先想到的经验和信息，并以此作为判断的依据
      - 例子：汽车和飞机谁的危险系数更高
    - - 例子：以貌取人
      - 根据最初想到的类似情况的例子来判断一种情况
    - - overestimate the accuracy of our judgments
      - 高估观点正确性-->conformation bias
    - - 我们做出不合逻辑的结论是为了证实我们先前存在的信念
    - - 不管证据如何，我只坚持本人
  - - - 一个角度解决问题，通常是之前被证明过的方法
    - - 看不到一个物体的新用途
    - - 倾向于寻找能证实我们信念的证据，而忽略与它们相矛盾的证据
      - 偏见，主观排斥
      - 呈现出搜索信息的过程
    - - the way the problem is presented告诉别人
      - can drastically change the way we view a problem
    - - 只从一个角度看问题
  - - - thinking pointed toward one solution
    - - thinking that searches for multiple possible answers to a question
      - associated with creativity
    - - 做计划-反思- 改进
- - - - Iconic memory
        
        持续时间最短
        
        视觉
      - Echoic memory
        
        持续时间最长
        
        听觉
      - Haptic memory
        
        tactile触觉
    - - The participants could get all the information, but it faded quickly
      - second version
  - - - George Miller
      - mnemonic devices
        
        chunking分类记忆
        
        organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
        
        can be used to expand this limit
        
        电话号码分区块记忆
        
        Acronym首字母法（藏头诗
        
        Acrostic离合诗——create another sentence to memorize acronym
        
        Memory palace / loci——记忆宫殿，choose a familiar place, 空间顺序记忆
    - - mental repetition of incoming information
      - Elaborative Rehearsal
        
        联想记忆
      - Maintenance Rehearsal
        
        死记硬背，无法保证short-->long
  - - - Explicit memories (declarative memories)
        
        We encode explicit memories through conscious, effortful processing.
        
        有意识地输入
      - Implicit memories (nondeclarative memories)
        
        unintentional memories that we might not even realize we have
        
        this is automatic processing
        
        Procedural memory
        
        automatic skills and how to perform them
        打字/骑车/跳舞...
        
        stored sequentially but difficult to describe with words
        
        space（位置）/time（顺序）/frequency（发生多少次）
        
        Classically conditioned associations among stimuli（手心出汗）
    - - Episodic memory情节记忆
        
        memories of specific events生活经历，本人参与过的任何事情
        
        stored in a sequential series
      - Semantic memory语义记忆
        
        general knowledge of the world
        
        stored as facts, meanings, or categories
        
        例子：2022年北京办冬奥会，报道新闻，但自己没有去，那就是Semantic
      - Procedural memory程序记忆
        
        skills
- - - - 大多数遗忘都发生在早期，然后趋于平稳
    - - repetitions of material after which it can be recalled with 100% accuracy
- - - - the process of matching a current event or fact with one already in memory
      - 例子：“Have I smelled this smell before?”; 单选题
    - - 检索当前不在你的意识中但在早些时候已经学习过的信息
      - 填空题
    - - 当你用一秒钟或更晚的时间学习一件事时，你会学得更快
  - - - serial position effect
        
        recall best the first and last items
        
        primacy effect首因效应
        
        at the beginning of a list
        
        recency effect近因效应
        
        recall the items at the end of a list
    - - activation of particular associations in memory (often unconsciously)
        很容易根据周围的环境进行推测/被误导，激发自己的记忆
        eg. 跟在医生旁边的人就是护士（base on experience)
    - - tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon话到嘴边
        
        temporary inability to remember information
      - semantic network theory
        
        our brain forms new memories by connecting their meaning and context with meanings already in memory
      - flashbulb memories
        
        the importance of the event caused us to encode the context surrounding the event
      - recall more words if retested in the same place
    - - mood-congruent memory
        
        the greater likelihood of recalling an item when our mood matches the mood we were in when the event happened
      - recalling events encoded while in particular states of consciousness
    - - misinformation effect
        
        错的information
        Leading questions can easily influence us to recall false details
      - Source amnesia/misattribution
        
        错的source
        我们把经历过、听说过、读到过或想象过的事件记错了来源
        
        Authors / songwriters sometimes suffer from it.
- - - - often they are constructed or false memories of events
        对事件的构建或错误记忆