Validity & Reliability
Validity & Direct Observation
Lack of Anonymity.
Social Reality as a Construct
Lack of Structure in the Observational Instrument.
Measured Validity
Validity of Indirect Observational Methods
Reliability
the person being observed is careful to conduct themselves in socially desirable ways and may avoid disclosing sensitive data since anonymity is not assured.
*exception of hidden observational studies (e.g., use of one-way mirrors)
what is observed is partially a picture of what is actually there and partially a picture of the observer’s expectations, which are generally based on past observations.
observer is not entirely impartial - biased - selective perception
the opposite—complete lack of expectation of what is to be observed—can also lead to invalidity
Objective of direct observation - avoid causing the invalidity of the social reality construct by imposing an artificial structure on reality and thus seeing what they expect to see. BUT, for structure to emerge organically requires time and the researcher without any structure may end up observing little bit of everything without any conclusive inferences and will miss specifcs.
Adequacy of Human Sense Organs.
researcher must realize the fallibility of their own sense organs - subject to distortions - a number of other factors such as fatigue, stress, and hunger can affect the quality of sensory perceptions
Erosion Method
The staircases of a departmental store may be dedicated to come down or up, Does not necessarily mean that the stairs going up have a larger foot fall, it is just people applying more pressure to climb the stairs.
Acccretion Method
The dumpsters of a city may not be able to provide accuracy of data as materials to be observed my have decomposed, decayed since the advent of the event of interest.
Limitations of Indirect Methods of
Inability of the observer to ensure anonymity for persons being observed.
Subjective nature of social reality
the fallibility of sense organs
Many factors affect the accuracy of observational data like inability to ensure anonymity, the subjective nature of social reality, and the fallibility of the sense organs.
The extent to which the degree of
reliability can be assessed depends on the type of observational method used.
Field Research is generally an individual effort
The assessment of reliability is much easier in a study that uses a structured
observational format, either in a natural or a laboratory setting.
If the general guidelines for conducting observational research are
carried out there is no reason why rather high reliabilities cannot be achieved in structured observation.
Experienced observers are more reliable
than inexperienced ones
OBSERVATION
Advantages of Observation
Disadvatages of Observation
Types of Observation
Field Studies
Gaining Rapport
Dealing with Crises
Data Analysis
Nominal measurement
- described by labels, names, or descriptive terms rather than by numbers
- applied to the person being studied in order to delineate meaningful social types
- sets of categories based on more than one dimension or variable are called taxonomies or typologies
- summarizing the field notes by means of taxonomy
Gaining Entry
Observing & Recording
(Field notes)
Completely Structured Observation :
Semistructured Study
Unstructured Laboratory Study
Indirect Observation
Strategies proposed by Wax -
- Appear humble and powerless, not seen as a threat
- Appear powerful and prestigious, no one could challenge you.
- Connect oneself with the most powerful group in the setting.
Longitudinal Analysis
Nonverbal Behavior
Natural Environment
Lack of Control
Difficulties of Quantification
Small sample size
Gaining Entry
Lack of Anonymity
- Degree of Structure
2.Imposed on Setting by the Observer
a) STRUCTURED
b) UNSTRUCTRED
a) Natural Setting
b) Artificial Setting
Major Problem faced is in initially understanding language, customs and habits.
Misconception by the people being studied may think that the observer is a spy for police or government.
Checklist of items > Questionnaire
Bale's Method for studying group interaction
Laboratory > Natural setting
Groups involved in decision-making and problem solving - have common constant elements in their interaction
Limited to observation with a structured checklist of close-ended questions
Subclassification of System Problems
Problems of Orientation
Problems of Evaluation
Problems of Control
Problems of Decision
Problems of Tension-management
Problems of Integration
Virtually eliminates communication or interaction between observer and subjects (participants)
Entry Problem
Finding willing participants > Observer's entry in the organization
Observer must legitimize their presence in the organization
By their affliation to institutes or research organization
Assuring a non-harmful study
Wax's Study - 1971:
- study in Japanese relocation camp during WW II.
- GILA center in Arizona
Usual Problems Faced:
- Loneliness
- Unfamiliarity with language and customs.
Unusual Problems Faced:
- She was in hostile environment,
considered her to be the US government spy. - Weather was really hot in Arizona desert when she initiated her study.
Factors for rapport building :
- arrival of Japanese Anthropologist.
- pursuit of 'Red Herring' i.e. distracting from the intended topic.
- study of Japanese language.
Reciprocation of Trust- Circular and cumulative process: less anxiousness= better field work and awareness of better field work= less anxiousness.
Contains the few of the advantages and disadvantages of completely structured and unstructured study
Allows the subject/participant to act as they normally would within certain controllable parameters
Solutions to overcome the disadvantages
provide the observer some form of external control
SEAR's BUO STUDY
Varied reasons one might use indirect observation
participant is deceased
the person is famous, and don't want privacy to be invaded
fear of reactivity
Non reactive research method
Unobtrusive research method
uses document analysis + direct observation by one way method
the researcher is not physically present when the behavior is occurring
EROSION METHOD
ACCRETION METHOD
Refers to a type of indirect observation which measures the erosion or degradation of an area based on the footfall.
, For example, : Deeming a certain exhibit in the museum to be famous based on the wear of the tiles.
Refers to the observation of the deposition and accumulation of materials over time.
Looking through the garbage bins to get an idea of the most popular drink.
Characteristics
-Least structured of the 4 types of observation, takes placeonly in natural setting
Use participant observation
Often used with the term ethnography or ethnographic studies
Vidich and Shapiro (1955)
assessed the criterion validity of observation by
a participant observer’s rating of respondent’s prestige.
observation seems to be the superior
method for studying nonverbal behavior
show a clear relationship between observation data and survey data
60 % percent of respondents placed in the highest category by the observer scored five or more on the survey.
100% percent of respondents rated by the observer as being in one of the two lowest prestige categories scored in the 0 category on the survey
Being used in complex societies to study subcultural groups
Ethnographer has few hypotheses and no
structured questionnaire.
7% of persons rated in the highest category by the observer failed to receive at least a point on any of the five survey questions.
chief advantages of of an obsevational study in which no structural set of categories is used as it allows the pesons being observed to structure the situation and allows the obesever to learn to view the world through the host's eyes.
most studies done in artificial environment are completely structured .
Bales studies (1952) in which people placed in laboratory are given short tasks and observed by structerd set of observational categories.
example of play therapy for the treatment of emotionally disturbed children. the gol of play therapy is therapeutic to improve emotional health of the person and social- science knowledge gained by unstructured observation of the person is secondary goal.
Challenge faced by ethnographer: Socialization & resocialization, might be labelled as outsider, readjustment problem when studying own culture
General Rules:
Positive
Negative
- unknown observer may be unable to take any notes at all, and may have to rely on his or her memory.
- Prefer jot down notes during the day and write their full field notes at night.
- sometimes possible to use recording devices
- events of the day will also remind the observer of earlier, unrecorded. (Important)
- Note taking can make the subjects self-conscious.
- don’t jot conspicuously’”
when taking field notes
Field work suggestions
Record the notes as quickly as possible
preferable to handwriting and not typed
Discipline yourself to write notes quickly.
make at least two copies of field notes
Components
Steps in field studies
running description
-Deciding the goals of study
-Deciding which group to study
-Gaining entry
- Achieving rapport
previously
forgotten happenings that are now recalled;
analytical idea
personal impressions and feeling
notes for further
information.
notes ought to be full enough
adequately to summon up for one again
Things to keep in mind - affiliation or legitimate identification, finding an insider or informant or middleman
Johnson (1975), in the field
study of county welfare organization
challenges, point of view of administrator
Conduct the study by observing and recording field notes over a period
of weeks, months, or even years.
. Deal with crises that occur, such as confrontations with subjects who
think you are some sort of spy.
Exit from the observational study.
Analyze the data
Write a report presenting the findings