MOTIVATION
Theories of motivation
Motivations is a process that influences the direction, vigour and persistance of goal-directed behaviour. On several fronts, scientists are actively exploring how heredity influences motivation
Biological models view motivations as an attempt to maintain equilibrium in bodily systems. Drive theories proppose that tissue deficits create drives, such as hunger, that push an organism from within to reduce that deficit and restore homeostasis
Socia cognitivre tehoreis include attention to incentives that pull people towards a goal and incorporate expectancey x values theory, whcih explains why the same incentive may motivate some people but not others
Hunger and weight regulation
Physiological processess attempt to keep the body in energy homeostasis. Chhanges in supply of glucose available to cells provide one signal that helpts initiate hunger. During meals, hormones such as CCAK are released into the bloodstream and help signal the brain to stop eating. Fat cells release leptin, which act as a long-term signal that helps regulate appetite. The hypothalamus plays an important role in hunger regulatikon
Th expected good taste of food motivates eating. Through classical conditioning, neutral stimuli can acquire the capacity to trigger hunger. Cultural norms affect our food preferences and eating habilts.
Heredity and the environment affet our susceptibility to becoming obese. Anorexia and bulemia ocdur more often in cultures that value thinness and are associated with somewwhat defferent psychological profiles. Heredity predisposes some people towards developing these eating disorders
Sexual motivation
Achievement motivation
Motivational conflict
Social motivation
During sexual intercourse, people often experoience a four-stage physiological response pattern consisting of excitement, plateau, orgasm and resolution
Sex hormones have organizational ewffeddts that gide prenatal organ development along either a male or female pattern. Sex hormones also have activational ewffects that influende sexual desire
Sexual fantasy can trigger arousal, whereas pscyhological difficulties can interfere with sexual arousal. Cultural norms help determine the sexual practices and beleifs that are considered proper
Environmental stimuli affect sexual desire. Viewing sexual violence reinforces men´s belief in rape myths and genereally increases men´s aggression towards women, at least temporarily
Sexuial orientation involves dimensions of self-identity, sexual attraction and actual sexual behaviour. Scientists still do not know conclusively what determines an individual´s sexual orientation
Human seek to affiliate in many ways. Affiliation has adaptive advantages, and allows people to obtain positive stimulation, receive emotional support, gain attention and engage in social comparison
People differ in how strongly they need to affiliate, and some theorists view affiliative behaviour as governed by homeostatic principles
Situations that induce fear ofte increase people´s tendency to affiliate. When afraid, people often seek the company of others who have been through or are currently experiencing the same or a similar situation
Soem reliable sex differences ocur in people´s mating strategies and preferendes, such as men´s tendency to seek younger womewn and women´s tendency to seek older men
Social exclusion is a painful experience for most people, and it often leads to attempts to reconnect socially in new relationships
High-need achievers have a strong motive for success and relatively kow fear of failure. They tend to seek moderately difficult tasks that are challenging but attainable. Low-need achievers are more likely to choose easy tasks, where success is assured, or very difficult tasks where success is not expected
Mastery, ego.-approach, and ego-avoidance are basic achiewvement goals. Mastery goals are associated with viewing achievement tasks as a positive challenge, whereas ego-avoidance goals are linked to viewing such tasks as threatening. Ego-approach goals are most strongly linked to eventual course grades for college students, mastery goals to course enjoyment
Compared with ego-involving environments, mastery-involving motivational climates foster higher enjoyment and intrinsic motivation, greater feelings of self-determination, lower levels of performance anxiety, and better learning of skills, greater effrort and higher performance
Child-rearing and cultural factors influence the nature and expression of achievement motivation
Motivational goals may conflict with one another. Approach-approach conflict occurs when a person has to select between two attractive alternatives, whereas avoidance-avoidance conflicts invovles choosing between two undesirable alternatives
Approach-avoidance conflict occurs when we are attracted to and repelled by the same goal