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Week 12: Developmental Psychology - Coggle Diagram
Week 12: Developmental Psychology
Nature-Nurture
Issue
Nature
innate characteristics may influence
environment one selects or elicit certain responses from others
Nurture
Twin Studies
Identical
(monozygotic)
share
100%
of their genotype
hereditary effects will show up more strongly
Fraternal
(dizygotic)
share
50%
of their genotype
able to control for shared
environment at home
Harder to control for
non-shared environments
reveal that genetics contribute substantially in variety of mental and behavioural disorders
Adoption Studies
studies where adopted individual's characteristics are compared with biological family and adoptive family
Relative weight of
each factor
Nature-nurture
interactions
how predispositions (nature) can reach their full potential when exposed to the right
experiences in our environment
Stages of
Early Development
Prenatal Period
Embryonic Phase
Differentiation
embryonic stem cells began to specialise and form vital organs and bodily systems
Eg. formation of sex organs
based on genetic plan
2nd week to 8th week
Fetal Phase
9th week to birth
Brain fully formed by
16 weeks
Appearance of spontaneous
movements and reflexes
Able to hear sounds outside
the womb by the
27th week
Grasping reflex can appear as
early as the
14th week
New neurons developing at
250,000
neurons per minute
Teratogens
Substances that can damage zygote, embryo or fetus during the prenatal period
Include viruses (HIV), radiation
Alcohol
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
physical and mental problems seen in children whose mothers drink excessive alcohol during pregnancy
Symptoms
Hyperactivity
Impaired attention
Mental retardation
smaller head and brain size
Examples
Viruses
Alcohol
Nicotine
Herbs like gingko
or ginseng
Nicotine
Lower birth weight
ADHD
Sudden Infant Death
Syndrome (SIDS)
Germinal Phase
zygote undergoes cell division
Implantation in the uterus occurs
1 to 2 weeks
Neonatal Period
birth to 1 month
Sensory Abilities
ability to differentiate
Visual Preferences
Preferential Looking
complex stimuli
such as faces
Neonatal Nearsightedness
Focus of
12 inches
suitable
for looking at faces
Visual acuity of
20/500
Auditory Preferences
preference for human
voices over others
explained by
nurture
Taste and Smell
reflects ability to seek
healthy nourishment
Social Abilities
Mimicry
imitating other people's behaviour
Synchronicity
close coordination between gazing touching vocalising and smiling of infants and caregivers
explained by mirror neurons (nature) and positive reinforcement from mimicry (nurture)
Cognitive Abilities
Core Knowledge Theory
coined by Elizabeht Spelke
Objects
Agents
Quantities
Spatial Relationships
Innate Reflexes
Postural Reflex
Rooting Reflex
"newborns turning their heads towards anything that strokes their cheeks and beginning to suck it"
Grasping Reflex
Stepping Reflex
"baby legs will lift up as if marching
when held over a surface"
Infancy
1 - 18 months
Neural Development
Synaptic Pruning
"trimming of unused brain connections allowing neurons to return to an uncommitted stage"
Synaptic formation and strengthening
based on experience
Sensitive Period
learning to ASL during childhood
better than learning later in life
period of time when organism
is extra sensitive to certain stimuli
Maturation
gradual unfolding of genetically programmed processes of growth and development
Developmental Norms
median age at which certain behaviours
are expected to emerge
Genetic Leash
"heredity places constraints on development but the environment can alter the exact time of development"
Attachment
close emotional bond of affection that develops between child and caregiver
Types
The Strange Situation
designed by
Mary Ainsworth
measures
separation anxiety
Secure (
65%
)
comfortable with caregiver and tolerant of
strangers and novel experiences
shows happiness and calms down
immediately when caregiver returns
displayed
separation anxiety
when
separated from caregivers
Insecure Attachment
Avoidant (
15%
)
displays no interest in contact with caregiver
shows no distress when separated
avoids caregiver and acts coldly upon reunion
Anxious-Ambivalment (
20%
)
uncomfortable with strangers and novel experiences
Displayed
excessive
separation anxiety
when separated from caregivers
Remained distressed
even when reunited with caregivers and were
difficult to console
Disorganised
lays the foundation for other
close relationships
Imprinting
"when young animals form an attachment
with the first moving object they see"
Separation Anxiety
"emotional distress observed in young children when separated from caregivers"
Contact Comfort
Innate or Learnt
Learnt
a result of operant conditioning
as target is source of food
Innate
Harry and Margaret
Harlow's experiment
attachment driven more by innate need
for contact comfort then for food
"stimulation and reassurance from
physical touch of a caregiver"
stimulates release of endorphins
and physical growth
Psychosocial Stages
"eight major challenges that occur through life and require one to choose between
two opposing beliefs
"
Trust vs Mistrust
Developed by Erik Erikson
Language Acquisition
Empiricism
Perceptual narrowing
"decrease in sensitivity to infrequent stimuli and increase in sensitivity to frequently encountered stimuli"
occurs by the
end of first year
affects ability to
differentiate phonology
Nativism
Language Acquisition Device
Children in different cultures learn languages
at similar stages and similar times
"
mental structure programmed with fundamental grammar rules allowing children to learn languages
"
Babbling
One-word
Two-word
Telegraphic Speech
"short simple sentences without tenses, plurals or articles, prepositions"
Ball hit Evie cry
Morphemes
"
smallest units of meaning
"
"d" or "ed" or "s"
Over regularisation
"adding morphemes inappropriately to exception words"
hitted, feets, moneys
reached by
age of 2
vocabulary of
1000
words
increases to
10,000
words
by age 6
reached by
first birthday
Practice makes perfect
Low SES families read to children
an average of
25 hours
High SES families read to children
average of
1000 hours
Cognitive Development
Acquiring novel
information
Assimilation
"incoporating new information
into existing schemas"
Accommodation
"restructuring or modifying existing
schema to include new information"
Piaget's Stages
Sensorimotor
Object Permanence
"understanding that objects can continue existing even when outside perception"
usually develops
around
8 months
0 to 2 years old
Overcoming separation anxiety
Goal-directed behaviour
ability to have a single goal in mind
while they pursue it
Eg. Dropping a spoon to hear the sound (goal)
Mental Representations
evidenced by emergence of
object permanence
and
goal-directed behaviour
ability to form internal images of objects and events
"explore the world through
senses and motor actions"
Preoperational
2 to 7 years
Use of mental representation and symbols during cognition
Egocentrism
"inability to realise there are other viewpoints besides one's own"
Three Mountains Task
Centration
Eg. Thinking a tall cup is
bigger
than a wide cup
only able to focus on height and ignore width
"Inability to take into account more
than one factor at a time"
Irreversibility
"inability to think through a series of events or mental processes and then reverse the steps"
Eg. Thinking raisins spilled on the ground are more than raisins in small box
Animalistic
Thinking
"belief that inanimate objects have
life and mental processes"
Concrete Operational
"understands conservation but is still
incapable of abstract thought"
Conservation
"understanding that physical quantities do not change when appearances change"
7 to 11 years
Mental Operations
"solving problems by manipulating
internal images in one's mind"
internal images are usually
concrete objects and events
Formal Operational
transcends concrete thought and
delves into abstract thought
ability to conceive of hypothetical situations
highly dependent on level of
education and experience
Theory of Mind
usually underdeveloped
in children with ASD
Sally-Anne Test
"an awareness that others have beliefs, desires
and emotions different from yours"
facilitates empathy, enables deception
and helps with decision making
Criticisms
Wave Metaphor
"conceptualising transitions between stages as occurring more gradually - in waves"
Coined by Siegler
Abilities appearing earlier
"development of thought processes from childhood through adulthood"
Adolescence
Erikson's Psychosocial Stage
search for identity but this can be
confounded by having multiple roles in life
Identity vs Role Confusion
resolving this identity crisis helps to develop a
coherent sense of self
Identity Statuses
Developed by James Marcia
Identity Foreclosure
High commitment
Low exploration
Commitment to an identity based on conformity
to values of others without much exploration
Identity Diffusion
Low exploration
Low commitment
undeveloped identity due to
lack of interest or indecision
Identity Moratorium
synonymous with identity crisis
High exploration
Low commitment
actively exploring identity options
before making a commitment to one
Identity Achievement
High commitment
High exploration
commitment to personal identity
as a result of significant exploration
based on
commitment
to
an identity and degree of
exploration
done
Neural Development
Fully developed
amygdala
but
underdeveloped
frontal lobe
Tendency to react more emotionally and face difficulties controlling and regulating emotions
Increase in levels of estrogen and testosterone
Physical Maturation
Puberty
Adulthood
challenges faced are much more
fluid than stage-like
Early
Challenge: intimacy vs isolation
Emerging Adulthood
18 to 40 years
Middle
Generativity vs Stagnation
adding value to the lives of others
and finding meaning in daily activities
40 to 65 years
Late
65 years and beyond
Social and Emotional
Development
Socialisation
"lifelong process of shaping individual's behaviour, attitudes and motives to become socially desirable"
Parenting Styles
Authoritative
Authority
Makes reasonable demands for child's maturity level and explains and enforces rules
Autonomy
allows child to decide according to developmental readiness and listens to child pov
Emotional Involvement
Warm, attentive and sensitive to child's needs and interests
Children are confident, self-reliant, enthusiastic and are happier
Permissive
Authority
Makes few or no demands due to misplaced concern for child's self-esteem
Emotional Involvement
Parent is warm but
may spoil the child
Autonomy
Permits child to make decisions regardless of developmental readiness
Children grow up less mature, more impulsive, more dependent and more demanding
Authoritarian
Emotional Involvment
Cold and rejecting while
frequently degrading the child
Authority
Highly demanding and uses coercion
with threats of punishments
Autonomy
Makes most decisions for child
without hearing child's viewpoint
Children tend to grow up
anxious and insecure
Uninvolved
Autonomy
Inattentive to child's decisions and pov
Authority
Makes few or no demands, lacking in interest or expectations for child
Emotional Involvement
Emotionally detached,
withdrawn and inattentive
Adulthood
Psychosocial Stages
Early
18 to 40 years
Intimacy vs Isolation
"establishing intimate relationships
with other adults"
ability to make commitment
(sexual, emotional, moral)
5:1 positive to negative
interactions
consolidate sense of identity before
being able to cope with adult intimacy
Middle
40 to 65 years
Generativity vs
Stagnation
adding value to the lives of others
and finding meaning in daily activities
Transitions
"Redefining or transforming
life role, goal, value or lifestyle"
Involve expected events like getting married, having children
Involve unexpected events like
falling ill or losing a loved one
Late
after 65 years
Ego-Integrity vs
Despair
"ability to look back on life without regrets
and enjoy sense of wholeness"
Selective Social
Interaction
"maintaining only most gratifying
relationships for investment of
physical and social energy"
Emerging Adulthood
time of exploration
and experimentation
"transitional period between
adolescence and adulthood"
recognises differences between modern adulthood and previous generations
proposed by
Jeffrey Arnett
ADHD
Biology
receive fewer
dopamine bursts
lower engagement and
long-term interest in a task
Slower development of
the prefrontal cortex
Faster development of
motor cortex
Moral Development
Preconventional
Stage 1:
Concerned with rewards and punishments
Stage 2:
Seeking personal gain by appealing to other's self interest
Conventional
Stage 3:
Good child
Seeking social approval and
satisfying everyone
Stage 4:
Law and order
Concerned with following rules
Postconventional
Stage 5:
Social Contract
promote social welfare
Stage 6:
Ethical Principles
achieve justice and be aligned with one's orientation