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LEARNING - Coggle Diagram
LEARNING
Operant Conditioning
Thorndike´s law of effect states that responses followed by satisfying consequences will be strengthened, whereas those followed by annoying consequences will be weakened
Reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened by an outcome (a reinforer) that follows it. With positie reinforcement, a response is strengthened by the presentation of a stiulus that follows it. With negative reinforcement, a response is strengthened by the removal of an aversive stimulus
Operant extinction is the weakening and eventual disapperance of a ressponse because it is no longer reinforced
Punishment occurs when a behaviour is weakend by an outcome (a punisher) that follows it. With aversive punishment, the behaviour becomes weaker when it is followed bu the presentation of an aversive stimulus. With response cost, the behaviour becomes weaker when it is followed by the removal of a stimulus
Shaping, which uses the method of successive approximations, involves reinfporcing behaviours that increasingly resemble the final desired behaviour. Chainign is used to develop a sequence of responses by reinforcing each response with th eopportunity to perform the next response
Operant generalization occurs when behaviour chagnes in one situation due to reinforcement or punishment, and the new response then carries over to similar situatiosn. In contrast, operant discrimination occurs when an operant response is made to one discriminative stimulus but not to another
On a continous reinforcement schedule, every reponse is reinforced. Partial reinforcement may occur on a ration schedule in which a certain percentage of responses are reinforced, or on an interval schedule, in whcih a certain amount of time must pass before a response gets reinforced. In general, ratio scheduels produce hgher rates of performance than interval schedules
On a fixed-ratio schewdule, reinforcement occurs after a fixed numer of responses, on a fixed interval scheduels, it occures after a fixed time interval. On variable schedules, the required number of responses or interval of time between them vareis around some average
Escape conditioning and avoidance conditioning result from negative reinforcement. According to the two-factor theory, fear is created thorugh classical conditioning. This fear motivates escape and avoidance, which are then negatively reinforced by fear reduction
Operant conditoning principles can enhance human performance in educational and work settings, reduce a wide array of behaviour problems and help people self-regulate their behaviour. Animals can be operantly trained to pewrform many specialized tasks
Classical conditioning
Pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulis that elicit an unconditioned response. Through repeated pairing the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that evokes a conditioned response similar to the orogianl uncponditioned stimulus. Extinction, teh disappearance of the conditioned response, occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus.
Sometimes spontaneous recovery occurs after a rest period, and the conditioned stimulus will temporarily evoke a response even after extinction has taken place. Spontaneous recovery indicates that extincion through the formation of an inhibition of the conditions response, rather than the unlearning of tthe unconditioned response
Stimulus generalization ocurs when the conditioned response is evoked by a stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus. Discrimination occurs when a conditioned response ocurs to one stimuli bot not another
In higher-order conditioning, once a stimulis (e.g. a tone) becomes a conditioned stimulus; it can be used in place of the original unconditioned stimulus (food) to condition other neutral stimuli
A wide range of bodily and psychological responses can be classically conditioned, including fears, sexual attraction, and positiv and negative attitudes. Techniques based on classical conditioning are highly successful in treating fears and phobias
Cancer patients may develop anticipatory nausea and vomiting to stimuli that are paired with their chemotherapy. Classical conditionign akso can increase or decrease immun-system responses
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Observational learning
Observational learning occurs by watching the behaviour of a model. Bandura proposes that modeling involves four step: attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. Observing successful models can increase people´s self-efficacy and thus otiate them to perform the modelled behaviour
Children can learn aggressive and pro-social behaviours by watching models.Even when viewing an aggressive model that is punished, children may learn the behaviour and display it at a later time
Modelling is often a key instructional technique in everyday skill-learning situations. Psychologist have applied modelling concepts to increase people´s pro-social behaviour
Social-cognitive theory can help direct and stimulate programmes to address neurological problems such as cerebral palsy, aphasia and Parkinson´s disease
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The adaptive brain
The brain´s ability to adapt and modify itself in response to experinece underlies ou rability to learn
No isngle part of hte brain regulates all learning. The hypothalamus and dopamine pathways play a role in enabling us to experience reward. Th ecerebellum and the amygdala are involved in acqjiring different types of classicallly conditioned responses
Studies examining the brains of people and animals who have learned specific skills, as well as environmental-enrichment experiments with animals, support that learning alters the brain