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Psych Exam Revision - Coggle Diagram

- - - - A sense of self is a holistic conceptualisation of who we are that persists over time. Many aspects of the self are influenced by social experiences
    - - A big part of our identity comes from the groups we belong to. Identity is something that binds us with others rather than separating us e.g gender, nationality, religion, political orientation etc
        
        The social me (William James 1890)
        
        What we know about ourselves from social contexts.
        
        Self-categorisation theory
        
        We categorise ourselves as well as other people. We groups things together to help us understand the world
        
        Working self concept (Marcus & Wurf, 1987)
        
        A subset of our knowledge is brought to mind in a given context
    - - Our sense of self derived from groups we belong to which have distinct culture (nationality, ethnicity, social class)
  - - - Individual
      - Interpersonal
      - Intragroup
      - Intergroup
  - - - The sociometer hypothesis (Leary et al., 1995)
        
        Things that makes us feel good about ourselves (self-esteem) are also the things that makes others accept and like us (belonging) E.g high self esteem signals social interation.
        
        Its argued that we don't need self esteem for personal reasons, just social reasons
    - - Social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954)
        
        Argues that we seek to gain accurate self evaluations and we do this by comparing ourselves to others
        
        Downward comparisons
        
        When we compare ourselves to others we think are worse than us (can help our own self evaluation)
        
        Upwards comparisons
        
        When we compare ourselves to others we think are better than us (can worsen our own self evaluation)
      - Self evaluation maintenance model (Tesser, 1988)
        
        We seek to maintain or improve our self evaluation and comparisons with others influence out self-evaluation
        
        Reflection
        
        Other people improve our self-evaluation e.g the self shares in someone else's success which makes us feel good
        
        Comparison
        
        Other people worsen our self evaluation e.g other people's success makes us feel worse about ourselves
      - At a group level
        
        BIRG-ing
        
        Basking in reflected glory. Other's success becomes our success. Align ourselves publicly with successful others. E.g wearing football team jumper day after football team wins
        
        CORF-ing
        
        Cutting off reflected failure. Distancing ourselves from other people's failure so it doesn't become our failure. E.g taking down political signs after political party looses
    - - Subjective feeling of distress when our social relationships are not going the way we would like. This is different from social isolation which is a state of having minimal contact with others. One can be very happy in social isolation whereas loneliness refers to wanting more contact than one has.
        
        Loneliness is affected by a lack of relationship quantity but is more affected by a lack of relationship quality.
      - Social networks and physical health
        
        Greater social integration is associated with lower mortality
        
        Loneliness is catching. People directly connected to a lonely person in a social network are more likely to be lonely as well
  - - - Group level exclusion
      - How others treat us on the basis of our group membership impacts on our mental and physical health
  - - - Social media can strengthen social ties
    - - Social media can weaken social ties and social comparison can be problematic
  - - - People often make snap judgments - quick impressions based on the briefest glances
        
        Some people rated after seeing the faces for only 100 milliseconds
    - - The ability to find patterns in events based on "thin slices" or narrow windows of experience. Our ability to draw relatively accurate conclusions about the emotions and attitudes of people in short interactions
  - - - Warmth refers to a person's intentions
      - Competence is about a person's ability to act on their intent
    - - We like to form well-rounded impressions of people, meaning we may infer qualities abut people if we don't have concrete evidence about those qualities
        
        From a study: When participants knew that pat was high in one domain e.g warmth, they assumed that Pat must be low in competance
    - - Alegbraically
        
        Impressions formed on the basis of a mechanical combination of information about a person
        
        Summative
        
        Averaging
        
        Weighted averaging
      - Configurationally
        
        Based on gestalt principles: the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. People combine information they receive about someone into an overall impression that can be different from the simple sum of items of information about that person
        
        Central traits
        
        Peripheral traits
  - - - Communication that builds trust improves relationships. Sharing information with others is a good way to deepen connections with others
    - - Revealing personal information about yourself not readily known by the other person can build trust because we are being vulnerable ultimately creating closer relationships
  - - - Milgram's obedience experiment
    - - Power of commitment
        
        Once a decision has been made, people feel pressure from themselves and others to act consistently with that commitment.
        
        Door-in-the-face
        
        Ask for a large favour likely to be denied followed by a small favour resulting in a higher likelihood of them doing the small favour
        
        Foot-in-the-door
        
        Make a small request which they will likely agree to followed by a larger request which was the real favour all along
      - Appeals to the head
        
        Norm of reciprocity
        
        When someone does something for us, we feel pressure to help in return
        
        Elaboration likelihood model
        
        Explains how people change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages
      - Appeals to the heart
        
        Compliance with requests is higher when people are in a positive mood
        
        Mood colors our interpretation of events: requests seem less intrusive when we feel good
        
        Emotion maintenance: we want to continue feeling good and granting a request is one way to do so
      - Social influences on conforming
        
        Types of social influence
        
        Majority influence
        
        When most group members behave in a certain way, one tends to behave in a similar fashion
        
        Factors which influence majority influence
        
        Anonymity
        
        Expertise and status
        
        Group size
        
        Group unanimity
        
        Minority influence
        
        Even if there is a strong majority, a consistent minority in the groups can affect group members's attitudes and behavior
        
        Factors influencing minority influence
        
        In order for minority influence to work, it must be consistent. It also might take longer to work on us that majority influence
        
        Normative influence
        
        We are influenced by others because we want to gain their social approval or avoid their disapproval (more common in majority influence)
        
        Informational influence
        
        We are influence by others because we accept information from them as evidence about reality (more common in minority influence)
  - - - Prosocial behavior that benefits others without regard to consequences for oneself
      - Motivations for Altuism
        
        Social reward
        
        Personal distress
        
        Empathic concern
    - - The tendency to exert less effort when working on a group task in which individual contributions can't be monitored
    - - Where the presence of other people provides a boost
        
        Co-action effect: we perform better in tasks when we do them with other people e.e racing against others rather than a clock
        
        Audience effects: We perform better in tasks when we are watched by other people
    - - Reasons why bystanders may not intervene?
        
        Diffusion of responsibility
        
        Pluralistic ignorance
        
        Evaluation Apprehension
      - Factors that increase the likelihood of helping
        
        The situation is more dangerous
        
        The perpetrator was present
        
        The victim was a close other
        
        Other bystanders were real (rather than instructed confederates)
  - - - The cognitive perspective
        
        Stereotypes which are not necessarily correct at all help people to be prejudice because they believe all members of a group have the same qualities
      - The Cognitive Miser
        
        Prejudice as a byproduct of our tendency to categorise thing and people. People tend to favour simpler ways of thinking than more effortful ways of thinking
      - Social identity theory
        
        We derive our identity partly off of the groups we belong to. We like to evaluate ourselves in a positive way and feel good about our identity. resultantly people tend to favour their in-group and have negative feelings towards any out-group.
      - Motivational perspective
        
        Hostility can emerge between groups even in the absence of direct competition. Intergroup hostility can develop merely because another group exists. The existence of groups boundaries can be enough to initiate intergroup prejudice.
      - Economic perspective
        
        Some of the most intense intergroup tensions arise between groups that compete for the same limited resource
    - - Economic lessons
      - Motivational lessons
      - Cognitive lessons
- - - - Mental health is not just the absence of psychological problems
  - - - Stigma exhibited by the public towards those with a mental disorder
    - - Ingrained stigma manifested at the societal level
    - - The negative attitudes including internalised shame that people with mental illness have about their own condition
    - - Our awareness and the perception of the stigmatised attitudes, prejudices and social distancing behavior that is held by others and by the public
    - - The experience of having been the target of expressed negative stereotypes, prejudice and manifest discrimination related to one's mental ill-health
    - - The extent to which individuals living with mental ill-health expect to experience stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination in the future because of their mental health status
    - - Contact
      - Education
    - - Attribution Questionnaire
      - Measures of behavioural intentions
  - - - An anxiety order where you regularly have sudden attacks of panic or fear
      - Includes persistent worry about having additional attacks, worry about the implications of the attacks and significant change in behavior because of the attacks
    - - Excessive worry more days than not for at least 6 months with anxiety about a number of events and difficulty controlling the anxiety
    - - The tripartite model of depression and anxiety (Clark and Watson 1991)
      - Hi-top and the unified protocol for the transdiagnostic treatment of emotional disorders
      - Biopsychosocial model
      - Behavioural model of depression
      - Becks cognitive model of depression (extends the idea to ABC cognitive model of emotion and behavior
  - - - Delusion, Hallucination, disorganised speech, negative symptoms, grossly disorganised or catatonic behavior (does not include mania or mood disturbances
  - - - Most mental disorders involve the combined action of a personality vulnerability (diathesis) and environmental stress
    - - Each disorder has certain personal attributes which make you more vulnerable to developing that disorder if exposed to the wrong environmental stressors
  - - - Traumatic theory
      - Social-Cognitive Theory
        
        The idea that culture and therapist cause the creation of multiple personalities. This theory has mainly been shut down
  - - - "Odd" cluster
        
        Linked to risk of psychosis
        
        Paranoid, Schizoid, Schizotypal
      - "Dramatic cluster"
        
        Linked to acting out
        
        Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic, Narcissistic
      - "Anxious cluster"
        
        Linked to anxiety and depression
        
        Avoidant, Dependent, Obsessive-compulsive
- - - - What mechanisms are needed for developmental change to occur?
    - - To what extent is development:
        
        Universal across all contexts and cultures e.g cuteness
        
        Exclusive to specific contexts and cultures e.g values/beliefs
    - - How do children with a shared background become different from one another?
    - - How can research promote children’s welfare?
    - - How do nature and nurture together shape development?
    - - How do children shape their own development?
  - - - SDT
      - PERMA
      - Ryff's wellbeing scale
      - Balit Murrup
      - PANAS
      - WEMWBS
      - WHOQOL
  - - - Mental Age test
        
        Binet and Simon's test was used to identify a mean score for a particular age by determining the average age at which children achieve a certain score
        
        Lewis Terman's intelligance quotient (IQ)
        
        Uses the mental age divided by chronological age x100 to determine IQ
    - - Raymond Cattell
        
        Crystallised intelligence
        
        The idea that our knowledge build on what is already there. It is said to increase as we grow. Refers to things such as general knowledge and linguistics.
        
        Fluid intelligence
        
        Flexibility to learn and adapt to your environment. This intelligence is said to decrease as we age
    - - Howard Gardener's 7 types of intelligence
        
        The idea that each domain of intelligence involves distinct cognitive processes
        
        Linguistic, Spatial, Kinaesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Logic/mathematical, Intrapersonal
      - Thurstone's 7 primary mental abilities
        
        Argued that its not the intelligence type thats changing, Its the mental/cognitive abilities under them that are changing. However, he found evidence that actually there is just one underlying thing which leads to intelligence e.g IQ
        
        Word fluency, Verbal comprehension, Inductive Reasoning, Associative memory, Spatial Visualisation, Number Facility, Perceptual Speed
      - John Carroll - Three stratum theory of intelligence
        
        A hierarchal integration of general intelligence, eight generalised abilities and many specific processes
    - - WISC
        
        Two main sections: Verbal (general knowledge, language skills), Performance (spatial & perceptual abilities)
      - Stanford-binet scale
        
        A child will get a score for each of the 5 different tests which can then be used to determine a mental age to calculate IQ
        
        Five cognitive abilities
        
        Fluid reasoning, Knowledge, Quantitative reasoning, Visual-spatial processing, Working memory
      - British ability scale
        
        Uses 3 domains (Verbal ability, Nonverbal reasoning and Spatial ability) to create a single general intelligence score
  - - - Investigated visuospatial memory of young people from Indigenous and European backgrounds. This study was not about finding difference in scores, it was about finding a difference in processing related to different cultures, backgrounds and environments
      - Key Idea: this study starts to test the idea that the way culture forms our experience affects our development
  - - - The genetic material a person inherits
    - - The observable expression of the genotype e.g appearance, height, different vulnerabilities to disease etc
    - - Relation 1 - Transmission of chromosomes & genes from parent to offspring
        
        A child's development is influenced by the dominant and recessive genotypes they inherit from their parents
      - Relation 2 - The child's phenotypes are expressions of their genotypes
      - Relation 3 - Impact of environment on child's phenotype
        
        Epigenetics and opportunity
      - Relation 4 - The child shapes their own environment
- - - - Subsequently proposed a third factor
        
        Psychoticism: agressiveness, coldness, antisocial tendencies, egocentricity, vulnerability to psychotic disorders
  - - - Genetics
        
        A .40 heritability implies a substantial environmental contribution to personality
      - Brain functioning
        
        Eysenck's theory
        
        Proposed that extraverted people have low level of cortisol arousal and therefore have a hunger to feed their hungry cortex
        
        Gray's Theory
        
        Impulsivity and behavioural activation system (BAS)
        
        Linked to sensitivity to reward and pleasure. Associated with a tendency to approach rewards
        
        Anxiety and behavioural inhibition system (BIS)
        
        Linked to sensitivity to punishment and pain. Associated with a tendency to avoid punishments
      - Structures
        
        Links between big 5 and brain structure volume
      - Chemicals
        
        Personality factors may be associated with neurotransmitter activity in the brain
      - Hormonal factors
        
        Ratio of index finger (2nd finger) to ring finger (4th finger) - (2D:4D ratio) - is associated with testosterone exposure
    - - George Kelly's perceiving (personal contracts) theory
        
        Proposes that humans are primarily driven to understand, predict and control their environment. We develop theories (personal constructs) to assist this process. This system of constructs is the personality
      - Explaining (attributional style)
        
        The way people determine and explain the causes of events can guide us to what attributions they posses
      - Thinking (emotional intelligence)
        
        Recent extension of the intelligence concept to include emotional and social abilities
        
        Perceiving emotion
        
        Using emotion
        
        Understanding emotion
        
        Managing emotion
      - Representing (the self)
        
        The self is a mental representation of one's personality
        
        Self complexity
        
        Self esteem
  - - - Does the measurment asses what it is intended to asses and does it provide useful information?
    - - Does the measurement yield consistent, dependable & error free information
        
        Internal consistency
        
        Do the components of the test all cohere? All test items should correlate with each other
        
        Inter-rater reliability
        
        Does the test give the same information about the person when different people administer it
        
        Re-test reliability
        
        Does the test yield similar scores when it is administered to the same person on different occasions
    - - Interviews
      - Personality inventories (self report)
      - Projective tests
      - Implicit personality tests (new form of testing based on automatic responses)
- - - - Compares the mean score taken from a sample t time 1 to the mean score taken from that same sample at time 2
      - Statistical test: repeated measures t-test
    - - Compares the mean score of one group to the mean score of a different group
      - Statistical test: t-test
    - - Measures the extend to which two variables co-occur
      - Doesn't provide information about cause and effect
      - Statistical test: correlation e.g Pearson's