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Section 1 - The emergence of conflict and the end of consensus, 1625-29,…

- - - - Elizabeths death Puritans draft reforms for James to consider. Became known as 'Millenary Petition' with over 1000 signatures.
        
        Scottish Kirk (Scottish Church) very strict on its version of Protestantism than Elizabeth's moderate Church of England. Hoped James would share enthusiasm and make settlement for 'purer' form of Protestantism in England.
        
        James convened conference January 1604 at Hampton Court to discuss. Culminated into argument and any hopes of Scottish style Presbyterian structure dashed. James affirmed his independence as Supreme Governor.
    - - The Gunpowder plot
        
        Consequences
        
        Recusancy (not attending local parish church for services, resulting in financial penalty) fines increased
        
        Catholics removed from government posts
        
        Catholics had to affirm new Oath of Allegiance 1606
        
        Public fear of Catholicism grew stronger
    - - Until Outbreak of 'Thirty Years' war 1618, James relatively successful in managing to maintain balance in Church.
        
        1604, anti-Puritan Richard Bancroft became first Archbishop of Canterbury. Strict approach to religious conformity, removed 9 Puritan clergy for non-conformity.
        
        Next appointment George Abbot, sat firmly on Puritan side, 1618 worked with James on Book of Sports which outraged puritans by encouraging recreational sports on Sunday.
  - - - Different to his Scottish Parliament.
        
        Did not as an extension of his personal court.
        
        James found it argumentative, with a growing sense of institutional independence and increasingly, manned by trained Members in law and keen to haggle over constitutional issues.
        
        Expected to be its head but instead a body beginning to stain towards an authority.
    - - Parliament and Crown relations strained due to James financial problems.
        
        Elizabeth died with significant debt.
        
        His household bigger (more to provide for)
        
        Wars expensive, England still in war with Spain
        
        Needed to display generous patronage to new subjects
        
        Had to maintain English prestige in court against France and Spain
        
        Could only raise certain amount through prerogative means but needed Parliament for large sums
        
        Scotland relatively poor
        
        Extravagantly generous to courtiers
  - - - 1604 Treaty of London, ended war with Spain. -> Spain (Catholic, anti-France)
        
        1609 Alliance with France during Julich-Cleves succession crisis -> France (Catholic, anti-Spain)
        
        1612 Alliance with German Protestant Union -> German Union (Protestant, anti-Catholic, anti-France, anti-Spain. anti-Hapsburg)
        
        1613 Marriage of daughter Elizabeth to Elector Fredrick V of Palatine (in Germany) -> German Union (Protestant)
        
        1613-18 and 1622-23 Pursuit of Spanish Princess for son, Prince Charles -> Spain (Catholic)
    - - Thirty Years' War
        
        Religious Fractures Appear
        
        Archbishop George Abbot wanted military intervention backing Fredrick and protecting Protestantism, but James disagreed and preferred to seem political solution, pressing Spain to accept mediation and maintain pursuit for Spanish match for his son.
        
        If failed, hoped to join French, as Catholic and anti-Hapsburg, believed they could sue for peace together.
        
        His policy made English worry he was flirting with return to Catholicism.
        
        Parliament's radical involvement in foreign affairs
        
        1621 recall of Parliament to request money for undefined future action in war, causing an ask for a reason.
        
        Petition sent to James asking for visible support for Protestantism and recommending a drop of Spanish match and replaced with protestant marriage for Prince Charles.
        
        Radical as precedent didn't allow Parliament to comment on Foreign Policy.
        
        James furious, lectured his Parliament with lengthy statement about Parliamentary privileges and Kings' authority.
        
        Parliament created document, 'Protestation', one of key constitutional documents.
        
        James so furious, ripped it out of Commons' Journal and dissolved Parliament.
        
        an athletic young gentleman from Lincolnshire, captivated King James when they met in 1614. As James descended into premature senility, Villiers came to completely dominate him. he swiftly began to control the courts and amassed wealth and titles, culminating in becoming the 1st Duke of Buckingham.
        
        George Villers, Duke of Buckingham
        (1592-1628)
    - - Last years of James' reign saw 'Rex Pacificus' (King of Peace) come to nothing.
        
        His health deteriorated significantly until he couldn't properly govern effectively, allowing Buckingham to achieve near total domination of public affairs.
        
        Misguided dash to Spain 1623 by Buckingham and Prince Charles ended in personal humiliation and collapse of any hope of Spanish match.
        
        Drove Buckingham more pro-France and anti-Spanish policy, matching Charles with Henrietta Maria.
        
        Within terms of marriage treaty Henrietta and any of her future children would be allowed to practice Catholicism in an open church.
        
        James died 1625, leaving Charles a mixed legacy.
      - Charles I (1600-1649)
        
        Second son of James I and Queen Anne of Denmark, was born in Scotland. Became heir to the throne when his older brother Prince Henry died 1612.
- - - - Unfortunately for Charles, at the time of his reign, England experienced huge growth in printed work. Printing press had dramatically changed people's access to information. In such a noisy environment, people though Charles' reticence indicated he was cold and aloof, neither keen to talk nor (and this would prove to be a catastrophic interpretation) keen to listen.
    - - 1625 no one could anticipate total breakdown of relations between King and Parliament by 1629;
        
        Maintain law and order within his kingdoms - ensure effective operation of Justice system, support healthy management.
        
        Defend his Kingdoms from external threats - effective foreign policy, maintain adequate military strength, keep strong public image.
        
        Provide effective religious leadership - maintain order in Church, defend true faith from Heresy.
        
        Ensure financial/economic wellbeing - careful management expenditure, efficient collection income, including tax
        
        New ideas of role of Parliament developed under James I. Cost of maintaining defence increased, and religious differences ongoing problem. However, Charles rigidity in the divine right of Kings was problematic.
  - - - After Buckinghams assassination 1628, the estrangement (dismissal of her French courtiers) that he had put on King and Queen lifted.
        
        Rapidly drew closer, meaning she could fulfil her wifely duty and produce children. Catalysing the transformation of her status and power.
        
        Arrival of high-ranking French ambassador, Marquis de Chateauneuf, helped her consolidate political presence in late 1620s and early 1630s, completely turning over her position.
      - Protection for Catholics
        
        Although allowed to openly practice Catholicism, it posed a huge obstacle in her acceptance by the country-at-large.
        
        Excluded from formal coronation.
        
        But the 1/5 of English that remained Catholic, presence of Henrietta Maria brought practical protection that filtered down to lower orders.
        
        Demonstrating her growing political skill, she prevailed on the Earl of Holland to discreetly secure the freedom of a number of arrested priests in the early 1630s.
        
        Increasingly gathered Catholic women around her.
    - - Henrietta had a unique ability to create court culture.
        
        Exuberant part of court in early part of her reign, causing consternation in some of her onlookers.
        
        Protestants objected queens love for masques, as thought acting was ungodly and participation of women particularly immoral.
      - References to the Virgin Mary
        
        Henriettas patronage to the arts caused a flowering of works celebrating her personality and associated her with the Virgin Mary.
        
        Many court paintings from the period use Catholic iconography, such as Pearls and Roses associated with the Virgin Mary, to adorn the Queen's image.
        
        No surprise atmosphere in the Queens court increased tensions.
  - - - Buckingham typical example of how someone short-cuts access to power.
        
        His physical attributes, charm and fluid sexuality meant that he was able to dominate James without having to climb steadily up the ladder.
        
        However, by time Charles succeeded James, Buckingham had nearly destroyed the functionality of the 'inner sanctum' as had effectively replaced the king as front of patronage and power and was distributing royal favour exclusively amongst his own faction.
        
        Court Charles inherited, notoriously immoral, corrupted by drunkenness and sexual immorality.
      - The Caroline Court
        
        Caroline - a term used to describe when Charles I was King of England
        
        Charles' personal temperament was swiftly reflected as the court rapidly reformed and became more orderly and moral.
        
        Initially Buckingham continued to dominate patronage, Charles instructed the gentry to spend less time in London and more time doing their duties in their regions.
        
        One member of the Gentry, William Palmer, was fined £1000 in Star Chamber in 1632 for remaining in London without royal permission.
        
        Charles drive, however, isolated him from those men who expected to become his natural advisers, and whose advice he would've found useful.
        
        Even after Buckinghams assassination, Charles failed to revert to the functionality of his father's earlier court and instead continued to priorities order over access.
  - - - Charles very attuned to the way visual arts and architecture could convey his power and authority.
        
        Made significant use of Hampden Court Palace, investing heavily in adding to the paintings, furniture and tapestries, some new but mostly antiques of established provenance.
        
        Made use of Surveyor-General, Inigo Jones, who designed Queen's House at Greenwich for Charles' mother.
    - - The development of the Divine Right of Kings
        
        For centuries, believed God chose Kings. Coronation service involved special blessing from Archbishop of Canterbury, who acted on behalf of Pope, which represented Church's pass of God's authority onto King (giving him a Divine Right to rule)
        
        But after break from Rome by Henry VIII, new practice that King was chosen by God began.
        
        Idea slowly developed over a century, James I partook in it, by 17th Century idea widely held.
        
        Charles built on James' theories and turned Divine Right into a new public genre of art and architecture.
        
        Opposition to Divine Right
        
        Parliament - some members of House of Lords, more in House of Commons, resisted as seemed to sweep all before it, removing their independent authority and subjecting them to royal will rather than the will of the people.
        
        Catholics - refused to accept Pope's authority displaced. Why allegiance such a complex issue.
        
        Puritans - Extreme Puritans believed King only had earthly power therefore shouldn't be allowed to appoint bishops and other spiritual leaders.
        
        Charles' endorsement of Divine Right
        
        All three 'opponents' exerted pressure onto Stuart Monarchs, both James & Charles' response was to intensify affirmations of Divine Right.
        
        James greatly lectured Parliament, whereas Charles more subtle but more inflexible. He turned the powers he possessed into tools to reinforce his royal authority and more strident the opposition became, the stronger the response.
        
        Catastrophically, people saw his ongoing endorsement of the Divine Right as sign he wanted to be an Absolute Monarch. Alarming the nation.
- - - - Tonnage & poundage, 1625
        
        anti-Spanish foreign policy high on Charles' agenda 1625, put financial pressure on him as expensive to equip and maintain military forces overseas.
        
        Needed about £1 Million so he called Parliament, hoping for a subsidy and a conformation of his right to collect tonnage & poundage;
        
        a tax on imports and exports
        
        since 1547, used to support navy
        
        calculated per 'ton' of wine and 'pound' of other produce- awarded by Parliament
        
        usually confirmed once at beginning of new reign
        
        Commons expressed mistrust of Charles' Foreign Policy (particularly due to Buckinghams influence on it) by only granting two subsidies (£140,000) and one year's right to collect tonnage & poundage
        
        Money insufficient enough to allow Charles to conduct his foreign policy
        
        Tonnage & poundage politically sensitive
        
        Buckingham connected to the benefits, Parliament did not think he was militarily competent and that he was politically overpowering.
        
        When Commons restricted its grant, striking blow at Buckingham
        
        Charles then ignored Parliament, and ordered his tax collectors to continue collecting in beyond the first year.
      - The forced loan, 1626
        
        without adequate parliamentary funds, Charles asked country at large for benevolence (voluntary gift for money which king could request through prerogative)
        
        1626, few volunteered money for Charles.
        
        Then decided to use forced loan, another prerogative income, to help win war against Spain and France.
        
        All viable summoned, individually pressed to pay.
        
        Public manner of collection made not paying open opposition, creating test of loyalty to new king.
        
        Opposition
        
        faced substantial anonymous opposition
        
        Others more open; 1627 Thomas Scot, MP for Kent, attacked Buckingham in Print.
        
        Some judges refused to endorse the legality of forced loan, one of Charles Judges, Chief Justice Carew, dismissed.
        
        George Abbot, Archbishop of Canterbury, suspended for refusing to license a sermon (religious discourse delivered in public) by Robert Sibthorpe which defended the forced loan
        
        attempted to use power of the church to persuade the people that it was their duty to pay.
        
        The Five Knight's Case, 1627
        
        King ordered imprisonment of 76 gentry and the Earl of Lincoln who refused to pay but did not have them charged with anything specific
        
        Nov 1627, 5 of 76 decide to force confrontation with the king by issuing a writ of habeas corpus (meaning 'you have the body' essentially innocent until proven guilty).
        
        under this ancient law they had to be tried for an offence or be released
        
        Charles had no choice but to take them to trial, shing a spotlight on the constitutional controversy
  - - - Puritanism CHURCH OF ENGLAND Laudianism
      - Overlap between religious position very pertinent
        
        Parliament made up of significant number of Puritan members, John Pym , as well as more moderate Anglicans who disliked both Puritanism and Arminianism
        
        Pym led Calvinist grouping in Parliament which probably majority throughout Parliaments of 1620s
        
        Arminian ideas appealed to Charles, promoted rise of Armenians in key Church posts
        
        liked how Armenians valued order, ceremony and hierarchy as it aligned with his idea of Divine Right.
    - - Feb 1626 Puritan Earl of Warwick requested Buckingham chaired a theological debate at York House
        
        Number of Puritan MPs attended, including Earl of Pembroke (Buckingham's Chief rival at court)
        
        On Arminian side, Edmund Sheffield
        
        Clergymen on both sides of religious debate also attended
        
        Buckingham not particularly religious man, maintained contacts from wide range of religious persuasions but in heightened tension of mid-1620s, becoming increasingly vulnerable to criticism on religious grounds as mother Catholic and had close links to Armenian clergy.
        
        Conducted in high secrecy and no contemporary account published
        
        For Warwick, conference designed to persuade Charles away from the anti-Calvinism of Arminianism to reinforce political relationship with Charles.
        
        However, clear the King, who didn't attend would not be persuaded
        
        Initially focused on writings of Richard Montagu, an Arminian clergyman who already generated controversy in 1610s.
        
        Examined his work, An Old Gagg for a New Goose, which pointed out similarities between Catholicism and the Church of England.
        
        tried to establish whether it was in line with mainstream Anglicanism to allow him to continue in office, but debates stretched beyond to consider the key issue of predestination
    - - Religious Division in Parliament
  - - - military campaign
        
        Charles and Buckingham persuaded the James to support
        
        intended to provide military assistance to the Elector Fredrick, Charles' brother-in-law
        
        was trying to wrest ancestorial lands in Palatinate from Spanish Hapsburg
        
        Sent army, controlled by Count Mansfield, which would join French force
        
        was a disaster, primarily because diplomacy broke down, as French King wanted help first, but James said no
        
        Louis XIII then refused to guarantee safe passage through French territory, leading to them being marooned in United Provinces, where soldiers wasted away through starvation and sickness
      - The Cadez expedition, Sep 1625
        
        Failure of Mansfield expedition and concessions to Catholics granted as part of marriage treaty concerned and frustrated the 1625 Parliament.
        
        Charles continued to endeavour to support Elector Fredrick and next decided to send fleet to Spanish port of Cadiz
        
        Financed by Queen's £120000 dowry, intended to open war on second front to distract Spanish away from Palatinate
        
        Set sail Sep 1625, humiliating fiasco; not only did English fail to capture port or any Spanish treasure ships stationed there, but most soldiers rendered themselves useless by getting hideously drunk on Spanish wine.
        
        Parliament furious, failure blamed on Buckingham as Lord High Admiral
    - - with marriage Charles to Henrietta Maria, the English expected France to cooperate with them in Foreign Policy to isolate common enemy, Spanish Hapsburg