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Chapter 7, Chapter 8, Chapter 9, Chapter 1, Chapter 6, Chapter 4, Chapter…
Chapter 7
The Light reactions
Light=electromagnetic energy= electromagnetic radiation
Wave length
Photon
Photosystems
Reaction-Center complex
Light-Harvesting complexes
Photosystem 1 and 2
Phosphorylation(chemiosmosis)
Pigments
Plants can only abosrb a small range of light from the electromagnetic spectrum
Plants are green which means that they cant absorb green light
Plants can only absorb 400 -700nm light which is about violet to red
The Calvin Cycle
Steps of the Calvin Cylcle
Reduxtion
Release of G3P
Regeneration of RuBP
Carbon Fixation
Different types of plants
C3 Plants: The most efficient; consumes most H2O
Photorespiration if there isnt enough H2O, which is very inefficient
C4 Plants: The middle ground, they can handle hot temps but less efficient; consumes less H20
CAM: Can handle very hot wheather. Least efficient; consumes least H2O
Intro to Photosynthesis
Types of consumers
Autotrophs(Self feeders)
Photoautotrophs
Plants and other photosynthesizers
Heterotrophs
Decomposers
Humans
Animals
Photosynthesis happens in the chloroplasts of leaves
Light reactions that make up photosynthesis occur in the thylakoid
Produces O2, ATP and NADPH
The Clavin cylce occurs in the stroma
Carbon fixation
Uses CO2, and NADPH
Creates NADP+, ADP+P, and Gluecose
Uses Co2, H2O and Sunlight
Leaf
Mesophyll
Green tissue inside the leaf
Stomata
Tiny pores in the leaf
Chloroplast
Grana
Thylakoid: when stacked are called Granum
Chlorophyll
A light abosrbing pigment that gives the leafs green color
Stroma
A thick fluid inside the chloroplast
Global significance of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis provides food and O2 for almost all living things
Photosynthesis supplies the nutrients needed for cell division to occur
Increase of CO2
Greenhouse effects
global warming and climate change
Increase photosynthesis in plants
Photosynthesis removes CO2 wich mitiages
Chapter 8
Meiosis and Crossing Over
Meiosis is for sexual reproduction, it make genetically different gametes
Meiosis creates genetically different gametes through the use of crossing, this is the exchange of corresponding segments between nonsister homologous chromosomes
Crossing over creates recombinant chromosomes
which are chromosomes that contain a new combination of maternal and paternal genes
Meiosis occurs in phases
It does PMAT like mitosis but instead it does it twice
and forms 4 new cells instead of 2
Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs
Somatic Cell: normal body cell
autosomes:44 of them
They are diploid
Gametes: sex cells
Sex Chromosomes: 2 of them
They are haploid
Life Cycle
Ovaries in females produce eggs and Testies in males produce sperm; they are haploid
The male sperm cell than fertilizes the female egg cell. The fertilized egg is called a zygote and is diploid
Mitosis of the zygote produces our bodies somatic cells and allows us to develop into adults
Every chromosome but the Y choromosome has a twin that resembles it, these are called homologous chromosomes
Homologous chromosomes have the same the same gene at a particular locus, but may have different alleles
Crossing over in meiosis is what causes new combinations of alleles
Cell Division and Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction
Prokaryotes
Binary Fission
Eukaryotic cell Cycle and Mitosis
Cell Cycle
An ordered sequence of events that extends from the time a cell is first formed till it divides; composed of 2 stages
Mitotic phase;
Its composed of :
Mitosis
Phases
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokenisis
Cell division
4 more items...
Prometaphase
Prophase
Interphase: where the cell spends most of its time
G1: cell growth, the first gap
S: DNA synthesis
G2: cell growth, the second gap
Mitosis is for making body cells and Asexual reproduction, it makes identical cells
Important structures
Chromatin: unpacked chromosomes
Chromosome: packaging of DNA, also the X shape
The X shape is composed of sister chromatids
Chromatids
Centromere
Mitotic Spindle: connects to the centromere of a chromosome
Formed by the centrosomes, and composed of microtubles
Alteration of chromosome structure and number
Nondisjunction
Can occur in Meiosis 1 or 2
Karyotype
photographic inventory of an individuals chromosomes
Trisomy 21 (Downsyndrom)
As age of mother increases so do the chances of a nondisjunction like Trisomy 21
Nondisjunction of sex chromosomes usually doesn't affect survival
Nondysjucntion can result in new species of plants and some Animals
Types of alterations
Translocation
Deletion
Duplication
Inversion
We can test for the alteration of chromosome structure and number
Chapter 9
Variations on Mendels laws
1) Incomplete dominance: results in a mixing of the phenotypes of the two alleles
2) Codominance: an equal representation of the phenotypes from each allele
ABO blood groups
A and B carbohydrates present at the same time on one blood cell
3) Pleiotropy: one gene affecting many phenotypes
sickle-cell disease
directly affects blood cell shape, which also creates breathing problems, blood flow problems, and more
4) Polygenic inheritance: phenotypes that vary along a continuum
skin color and height are polygenic inheritance
The environment that you grow up in can also affect your characteristics
Mendel's pea crosses were complete dominance
Variations in Mendel's laws can cause plant leaves to look different colors
The Chromosomal basis of inheritance
Chromosome behavior accounts for Mendel's laws
Chromosomal theory of inheritance
genes occupy specific loci on chromosomes
chromosomes undergo segregation and independent assortment during meiosis
Violations of Mendelian genetics: Linked genes
Crossing over produces new combinations of alleles
Crossing over between homologous chromosomes produces new combinations of alleles in gametes
separation of linked genes by crossing over = recombinant gametes
% of recombinant offspring = recombination frequency
Geneticists use crossover data to map genes
recombination frequencies can be used to map the relative positions of genes on chromosomes
A genetic map is an ordered list of the genetic loci along a chromosome
such a genetic map based on recombinant frequencies is called a linkage map
Mendels laws
The study of genetics has ancient roots
Hippocrates came up with the idea of pangenes
The science of genetics began with Gregor Mendel
and his study of peas
Some vocab
Traits: alleles
Heredity
Genetics
Characteristics: genes
True breeding
Hybrid
Genetic cross
Mendel's 4 hypotheses and 2 laws
1) alleles account for variations in inherited characteristics
2) for each character, an organism will inherit two alleles of a gene, one from each parent
3) if the two inherited alleles differ than only one will determine its phenotype, the displayed allele is called dominant allele and the hidden one is called the recessive allele
a heterozygote gene is a carrier of the recessive allele
4) a sperm and egg only carry one allele for each inherited characteristic because allele pairs separate from each other during gamete production
This is called the law of segregation
Generations
P generation: true breeding parents
F1 generation: hybrids
F2 generation: children of F1 generation mating
Law of independent assortment
Monohybrid cross: cross between heterozygous plants for one characteristic
Both are made from a cross(breeding) of two sexually reproductive species
Dihybrid cross: cross between heterozygous plants for 2 characteristics being followed. This is how the law of independent assortment is revealed
Rule of addition: or
Rule of multiplication: and
Punnett squares: all possible combos of alleles that could occur when gametes combine
Genotype: the allele letter
you can determine an organisms genotype with a test cross
Phenotype: the physical characteristic of each allele
Loci(locus): the physical location of an allele on a gene
we can visualize this concept in pedigrees
We can test for one genetic legacy with new technologies
genetic testing
amniocentesis
Chorionic villus sampling
blood tests
ultrasound
fetoscopy
Newborn screening
Many inherited traits are controlled by one gene
Huntington's disease is caused by a single lethal allele
Dominant does not mean common
Common are wild type
Uncommon are called mutant
Sex chromosomes and sex linked genes
Chromosomes determine sex in many species
Autosomes vs. sex chromosomes
Temperature-dependent sex determination
Haploid diploid system
ETC.
Sex linked genes
X-linked gene
Chapter 1
Transfer of information
Transfer and Transformation of energy
Chapter 6
Cellular respiration: occurs in the mitochondria
uses glucose and oxygen
produces Co2 and H2O
Chapter 4
Cytskeleton
Microtubules, microfilaments, inter filaments
Chapter 4
Esymbiont theory
Is how photosynthesis and cellular respiration happen in one plant cell
Chapter one
Evolution
Chapter 5
Energy and the cell