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block 1, （未布置work sheet）, : - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Focus on Form vs. Focus on FormS 形式聚焦教学 vs. 全形式教学
      - The Interaction Hypothesis by text Michael Long
        
        Negotiation of meaning (NfM) - three Cs
        
        Clarification requests
        
        Confirmation checks
        
        Comprehension checks
        
        Learner self-repetition/paraphrase
      - DeKeyser:
        
        Implicit learning:
        
        learning declarative knowledge using the deductive approach
        
        Explicit Learning:
        
        learning procedural knowledge using the inductive approach
      - An Information-processing Model:
        
        The human mind works as computer
      - The Noticing Hypothesis by Schmidt
        
        Nothing could be learned unless it has been ‘noticed’ by the learner.
        
        We can’t notice everything because our cognitive resource is limited.
  - - - 认知派与社会派的形成与发展
        
        认知派简史
        
        初步形成：乔姆斯基反对斯金纳的行为主义学说
        
        20C90S：内部分化，进一步发展
        
        社会派简史
        
        形成：20C80S 前苏联维果斯基和社会文化理论的影响
      - 主要分歧
        
        认知派
        
        语言观：语言是心理现象，由抽象规则组成
        
        学习观：学习者有选择地整合已有的知识体系，通过不断输出，转化成程序性知识
        
        研究对象：语言习得；方法：量化法；哲学倾向：现代派，人和社会是可分开的
        
        社会派
        
        语言观：语言是社会现象，与文化不可分割
        
        学习观：强调运用语言参加社交活动，获得语言以及文化知识
        
        研究对象：语言运用；研究方法：质化法；人与社会、语言与文化不可分割
      - 评析争辩
        
        由来
        
        概念之争
        
        范式之争
    - - the cognitive perspective
        
        information processing
        
        the limitation of cognitive resources -- understand the main words and sentences --automatically
        
        for proficient speakers--choose strings of words that are already existed in their minds
        
        retrieval of word meanings
        
        restructuring
        
        transfer-appropriate processing
        
        start with declarative knowledge and become procedural knowledge
        
        usage-based learning
        
        the competition model
        
        language and the brain
        
        second language applications
      - the sociocultural perspective
        
        ZPD
        
        the learner can perform at a higher level because of the support (scaffolding) offered by an interlocutor.
        
        second language applications: learning by talking
        
        collaborative dialogue
        
        people gain control of and reorganize their cognitive processes during mediation as knowledge is internalized during social activity
- - - - class content
        
        An activity about individual differences of language learners
        
        Learner's characteristics and individual differences of language learners
        
        motivation
        
        Williams and Burden (1997) defined motivation as: “…a state of cognitive and emotional arousal, which leads to a conscious decision to act and which gives rise to a period of sustained intellectual and/or physical effort in order to attain a previously set goal.” (p.120)
        
        Dörnyei & Ushioda (2011: 4) Motivation concerns the direction and magnitude of human behaviour
        
        3 more items...
        
        be understood of two factors
        
        Learner’s communicative needs: the more needs to speak the
        language, the higher the motivational intensity & desire to learn…
        
        Learners’ attitudes toward the L2 community: favourable
        attitudes lead to higher desire
        
        two orientations of motivation
        
        Integrative motivation: a sincere personal interest in the people and culture represented by the other group – can you think of any for yourself?
        
        Instrumental motivation: the practical value and advantages of
        learning a new language – can you think of any for yourself
        
        Reservations toward Gardner & Lambert’s (1972)
        Instrumental & Integrative Motivation
        
        aptitude
        
        Can be measured through Morden Language Aptitude Test( MLAT) developed by Carroll and Sapon (1959)
        
        Grammatical sensitivity
        
        Inductive learning ability
        
        Phonetic coding ability
        
        Associative memory
        
        age
        
        Critical Period Hypothesis( CPH) by Penfield and Roberts
        
        Younger learners VS Older learners
        
        learning styles
        
        Definition: An individual’s natural, habitual and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills.
        
        Field-dependent vs. field-independent
        
        Convergent vs. divergent
        
        Impulsive vs. reflectivee
        
        etc.
        
        personality
        
        Anxiety, or Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA),
        can interfere with the learning process
        
        Willingness to Communicate (WTC) is
        believed to relate to anxiety
        
        beliefs
        
        strong beliefs and opinions about how their
        instruction should be delivered.
        
        Spada (2009) looked into learners’ preference of when grammar instruction should be given whether ESL and EFL learners prefer to focus on grammar separately from communicative practice, or embedded within communicative practice
        
        Further consider the language learner in a multilingual and
        multicultural world
        
        KACHRU’S (1992)
        Three Circle Model of World Englishe
        
        the spread of English worldwide
        
        Outer circle
        
        Expanding circl
        
        Inner circle
        
        English Language Education
        
        EIL: English as an international language
        
        WE: World Englishe
        
        ELF: English as a “lingua franca
        
        ¡ GE: Global Englishe
        
        English Language Education is a world-wide
        phenomenon
        
        ESL: English as a second language
        
        EFL: English as a foreign language
        
        EGP/EAP/ESP: English for general/academic/specific
        
        EMI: English as medium of instruction
        
        Dörnyei’s (2005) L2 Motivational Self System
        
        motivation comes from a desire to close the gap
        between the current self
        
        Ideal L2 sel
        
        Ought-to L2 sel
        
        Motivation comes from a desire to close the gap between the current self and the Ideal L2 self or the Ought-to L2 self, while the L2 learning experience plays a role
        
        Investment (Norton, 2013, 2016
        
        Language learning as investment
        in a dynamic, multilingual and multicultural worl
        
        Ø Imagined Communities
        
        Investment
        
        Identity
        
        overview to a number of key concepts in individual
        difference
  - - - Key names
        
        Swan, Aboshiha, Holliday, Kumaravadivelu, Phillipson, Kubota, Nayar, and Pennycook
        Gong and Holliday (2013)
      - Problem
        
        Current problems: While there is a clear objective to challenge native-speakerist inequality, ironically, within an objectivist, positivist tradition, much research begins with the notion that there really are two types of teacher, with the aim of researching their differences, respective characteristics, and contributions. This comparative research has also become a common topic for dissertations and theses in university teacher education programs, perhaps more as a point of interest than as a means for raising critical awareness.
        The development of standardized acronyms such as NS and NNS, and NEST and NNEST further fix the concepts as definable and measurable entities that need to be researched further.
      - Key theories/ concepts
        
        Native-speakerism：an ideology that upholds the idea that so-called “native speakers” are the best models and teachers of English because they represent a “Western culture” from which spring the ideals both of English and of the methodology for teaching it (Holliday, 2005, p. 6).
        
        “learning group ideal” : a learning group which is ideal, and the ideal conditions are as followed: Language ability must therefore be rooted in knowledge and a broader educational base, and be moved on from the narrow, skills-based instrumentality of the referred to above.
      - Development
        
        This field comes from the argument on an ideology called Native-speakerism. Native-speakerism is an ideology that upholds the idea that so-called “native speakers” are the best models and teachers of English because they represent a “Western culture” from which spring the ideals both of English and of the methodology for teaching it. As an ideology, it is a system of ideas that represents a distorted worldview that supports a particular vested interest.
        
        Teachers who are labeled “native speakers” have been falsely idealized while teachers who are labeled “non-native speakers” are demonized as deficient in these attributes in fitting with the common yet mistaken description of so-called “collectivist cultures” of the non-West.
        
        The Othering of teachers who are labeled “non-native speakers” results in a cultural disbelief, and the othering itself is a kind of neo-racisist.
        
        Taking action against the embedded acceptance within the ELT profession that the native/non-native speaker distinction is real and harmless requires a radical removal of the core terminology that underpins it. In recent years, Kumaravadivelu (2016) argued that that there needs to be a quite radical paradigm change in the way that we think of and talk about teachers, as speakers and users of English, without using the terms “native speaker” and “non-native speaker.”
    - - Key theories/ concepts
        
        languaging 这一概念
        
        而在语言学习方面，生态心理学提倡一种全新的观，点：初学者并不是 “习得” 语言，而是在 “让身体和大脑适应生活中随处可见的 languaging 活动” 通过这种方式，“他们参与文化交流并且根据文化习俗与文化规范与他人协同合作”（ Thibault 2016： 77）。
        
        人类语言的动态活动（ languaging）是极度异质化的，且涉及很多不同时间尺度层面的互动，包括神经的、生理的、情境的、社会的、文化的过程与事件” （ Thibault 2017： 76）。
        
        韩礼德认为语言是一种 “意义潜能”，语言学研究的是人们如何通过 languaging 来进行意义交际（ Halliday 1985）。
        
        在李嵬看来，超语实践理论是一种可以对社会交流，尤其是多语使用者的社会交流、理解、创意等语用现象进行研究的创新方法。
        
        “互动本能” ：一种使婴儿和儿童为了与同物种趋同而设法与他们紧密关联的生物驱动力（ Lee et al． 2009； Joaquin ＆ Schumann 2013）。这种生物驱动力提供的神经结构将对方的面部、声音和身体动作传达给正在学习语言的 “互动本能” 儿童。
      - Key names
        
        Cen Williams, Baker, Ofelia Garcia, Merrill Swain, Thibault, Mufwene, Makoni, Pennycook, Gramling, Grosjean, Barac, Torrance, Kharkurin, Dewaele, Ascenzi-Moreno, Brantmeier, Chomsky, Vivian Cook, Burton-Roberts, Fodor, Cook, Joaquin ＆ Schumann, Enfield ＆ Levinson
      - Current problems
        
        )在学术研究领域单语主义思想依然根深蒂固地存在着。目前仍有一些国家实行单语语言政策，即使有不同语言共存，也还是只将一种语言强加给整个群体。这样的政策与意识形态往往与这些国家的社会现实背道而驰，它的存在只有政治目的。
      - Development
        
        该领域对于超语的概念、超语实践的特点以及超语实践的理论意义、超语实践教学法的实践意义等多个方面都有了很大的进展。大致来说，超语实践在中国及中文语境下的未来发展可以从以下几方面突破:多语种和多模态互动的超语实践创意,语言景观与语言管理,语言教育。已经有很多研究关注到了中文与外语的混合使用，包括汉字、数字、字母、新中式英语、表情符号及其它多模态交流方式在中国的混用，那么中文的独特书写和语音体系和其他接触是否会产生新的火花是我们可以期待的。为了商业利益而出现的超语实践也有其研究意义，当然，公众的超语实践也将带来语言规划与语言治理的问题，这些也需要我们去讨论研究。最后考虑到中国语言（包括少数民族语言）与方言的多样性，语言教育从政策与实践层面来说始终是一个重要议题。
        多年来，语言学家们都在设法开发能被广泛接受的语言水平测量标准。研究表明，习得年龄、使用频率、结构的显著性、功能负荷都对语言的理解与产出有影响，但是对于优秀、中等和初级学习者的划分仍然相对武断。
    - - Key names
        
        Mentioned above
      - Problem
        
        relationship between learners’ aptitudes and the types of instruction they receive in language classes. More research is needed to come to any firm conclusions about how we may be able to match certain aptitudes and instructional types.
      - Key theories / concepts
        
        Factors that are particularly important and influential in relation to L2 classroom-based learning: (a) age, (b) aptitude, and (c) motivation
        
        Aptitude
        
        Carroll (1962) proposed that language aptitude consisted of four cognitive factors:
        
        4 more items...
        
        (a) phonemic coding ability (the ability to recognize and retain new sounds);
        
        (b) grammatical sensitivity (the ability to recognize grammatical functions of words and phrases in a given sentence);
        
        (c) inductive learning ability (the ability to infer or induce rules of the language solely on the basis of input)
        
        (d) associative memory (the ability to make associations between words and their meaning and to retain that information)
        
        Motivation
        
        Gardner and Lambert (1972) were the first researchers to work with the idea of motivation in relation with L2 acquisition: Their conceptualization of motivation was centered around the socioeducational model, in which the motivation to learn emerges as a result of learners’ attitudes toward the L2 community.
        Hence their model contains two main components: (a) an instrumental orientation “reflecting the practical value and advantages of learning a new language”; (b) an integrative orientation “reflecting a sincere personal interest in the people and culture represented by the other group”.
        
        Dörnyei: A recent conceptualization of motivation—the L2 Motivational Self System
        Motivation comes from a desire to close the gap between the current self and an ideal self—or an ought-to self
        
        Age
        
        (Long,1990) Younger learners may be slower than their older counterparts at initial L2 learning; achieve higher levels of L2 attainment, even native-like proficiency, after a longer period of time spent learning.
        
        (Muñoz, 2006) Younger learners--better at picking up the language on the basis of input and without explicit reflection, while older learners typically find it hard to learn the language naturalistically, from exposure. （自然学习）
        
        Older learners—are likely to respond better than younger ones to an explicit focus on language rules and metalinguistic explanations, given their more developed cognitive systems.（语言规则和元语言）
        
        (DeKeyser, 2012) Age seems to have the most substantial effects on acquisition of L2 phonology; while knowledge of vocabulary is least susceptible to age
        
        Pedagogical Implication
        
        Hadfield and Dörnyei (2013) have suggested teaching strategies designed to increase the learners’ motivation. Such strategies are based on the L2 Motivational Self System and encourage learners to:
        
        (a) create a vision of their ideal selves being proficient in the L2,
        
        (b) plan ways to close the gap between the current self and their ideal self,
        
        (c) maintain the vision through role-play and authentic tasks.
      - Development
        
        There seems to be no significant development in the field.
- - - - The Vygotskyan Sociocultural Theory of Learning
        
        Scaffolding
        
        child-expert or expert-novice assisted performance
        
        focus on the amount of assistance provided by the expert to the novice
        
        In L2 contexts
        
        graduated
        
        contingent
        
        dialogic
        
        Mediation(higher-level cultural tools)
        
        between humans and the physical world
        through concrete, material tools
        
        between humans and the conceptual, semiotic world
        through language
        
        Rule: interpsychological→intralsychological
        人的外部活动→人的内部心理
        
        Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
        
        Definition: the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined throughproblem solving adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.(Vygostky,1978)
        
        Where
        
        A co-operative, corgulated activity
        
        mutual-cooperation
        
        aim at independent performance of the learner
        
        Focus: the quality of assistence negotiated between expert and novie. (compared with scaffolding)
  - - - The multilingual turn in second language acquiisition:
        a gradual shift in this discipline from monolingually biased to multilingually oriented.
        
        The theory of multi-competence(Cook,2008)
        
        Recursive dynamic bilingualism
        
        Dynamic bilingualism
        
        Dual Iceberg Theory
        
        The dynamic view of multilingualism(Jessner, 2008)
- - - - the behaviourism
        
        research result: in the process of habit formation, people would respond to the stimulus
        
        application: habit formation can be conditioned with reinforcements and punishments; Language is learned through reinforcement; Language learning is the result of forming new habits.
        
        dominant psychological theory in the 1950s and 1960s
        
        the rejection: Noam Chomsky (1928 – present): the MIT linguist: the creativity of language
      - Chomskyan Linguistics
        
        Chomsky argued for the creativity of language
        
        Poverty of stimulus
        
        fully achieve knowledge of these features
        
        Certain properties of language are too abstract, subtle, and complex to be acquired without innate constraints.
        
        Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
        
        Children have an innate device which supports the learning of language, i.e., a mental structure consisting of principles that generate mental representations.
        
        Universal Grammar (UG): Universal Grammar is innate, abstract representation of language in the brain; in acquiring a second
        language, learners draw on universal linguistic principles.
      - the linguistic approach
        
        lado 1957
        
        Transfer of L1 habits: the easiest structures to learn in a second or foreign language are those which exist in a similar form in the first language
        
        Negative Transfer/L1 interference: due to differences between L1 and L2:
        
        Krashen’s (1978) Monitor Model
        
        The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: acquisition is subconscious; (we have an innate LAD);
        
        The Monitor Hypothesis: what is “learned” consciously can only be used as a monitoring device;
        
        The Natural Order Hypothesis: we acquire the rules of language in a predictable order;
        
        The Input Hypothesis: language can be acquired subconsciously with “comprehensible input”; the grammar is automatically provided by the LAD;
        
        The Affective Filter Hypothesis: we have an “affective filter” which can be raised or lowered to prohibit/facilitate language learning.
    - - SLA
        
        focus on
        
        The linguistic approach: The properties & nature of language
        
        The sociocultural/sociolinguistic approach: The language learner
        
        The linguistic approach: The properties & nature of language
        
        The cognitive and psycholinguistic approach: The language learning process&(what happens within) the human brain
        
        definition
        
        Second language acquisition: a “second language” is a language that is learned when there is already a previous language in place.