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:flag-gb:THE WORD - Coggle Diagram
:flag-gb:THE WORD
LEXEME
All the varieties of a word are a word lexeme, considering the various ways in which we can find a word :leaves:
words form seen from the meaning point of view
LESSICAL UNITS
Can be a single word or a combination of two words that have one single meaning :vertical_traffic_light:
refers to each individual meaning
+multiwords units
LEXIS : collettive term for words in general or for the vocabulary of a specific language
LEXICAL SET: a group of closely related words of the same word class
MORPHOOGY
How words are costructed
MORPHEME
free morpheme
: can stand alone, LEXICAL MORPHEME
Bound grammatical morpheme
: can't stand alone
derivations
(or lexical morpheme) , lexical process which forms a new word out of an existing one by the addition of a derivational affix
inflectional
(usually at the end, grammatical process which combines and produce alternative grammatical forms of words)
INFLECTION (part of the internet structure of a word) can be classified as part of morphology
Ending we add to a word to indicate aspects (plural (number) or past tenses) , they can’t create a new word
Used to give more grammatical information abt words
Inflections are added to the stem of a word
Can occur only on open classes and pronouns
NOUN inflection
Can be inflected to show plurality and to indicate possession
4 more items...
VERB inflection
2 more items...
Affixation: process by which bound morphemes are added to bases to form new words
Minimal and meaningful
The smallest unit of meaning in a word
Root morpheme : part of a complex word at the heart of its construction and its meaning
Base : unit to which other morphemes may be added to create a new word
Recognise the roots of a word
GRAMMATICAL FEATURES
It is a cover expression for everything that recurs in texts that can be described
SOUNDS PATTERNS
Phonetic
PHRASES
Expressions, sintagmi intesi come gruppi di parole che appartengono insieme
WORDS
word form : Sequences of letters separated by space , considered as a flexible identity, freestaning
GRAMMATICAL WORDS: Words that fall into one grammatical category (word class or part of speech)
CLAUSES
Proposizioni
SENTENCES
TEXTS
Biggest unit of analysis, a serial of conjoined entrances related together
branca della linguistica Concerned w/internal structure of words
Concerned w/internal structure of words
Morpheme = minimal (i.e. smallest) and meaningful unit of word construction
WORD FORMATION STRATEGY
AFFIXATION
: the proces by which bound morpheme (affix) are added either word-initially or word-finally to free morphemes to form new words (derived words/
derivations
)
Prefix
are normally
class-preserving
, more frequent
Suffix
can be class-preserving or
class-changing
, tend to be word class specific
COMPOUNDING
: 2 roots , pre-existing words written as one element , productive way of forming words, the elements that make up compound words can stand alone if separated
Result of
BACK-FORMATION
( a suffix is removed from a existing word) or
conversions
(creating new words by change of word class but remains the same )
Combining forms
are those words that are formed nor by 2 affix neither compound (technophobe
MUKTI-WORDS VERBS /
PHRASAL VERBS
Combination of 2 or 3 elements
Their meaning is idiomatic, cannot be fu,ly deduced form the individual meanings of the element that constitute the verb but they ca be often replaced by a singular word verb
Colloquial nature
Most frequent pv are formed by lexical verbs as
take, get,up
and particles as
up,out,on
Endocemtric
: the compound as a whole’ meaning is equivalent to one of its part ;
egocentric
: the compound meaning is idiomatic
Other strategies
Acronym
way of expressing a phrase by only the first letter placed in sequence to form a new word r
Clipping
involves reducing a longer word to one or two syllables
Blend
similar to a coumpound although the base word are not joined in their entirety (smog), also callled portmanteau words
Eponyms the use of a proper name to refer to an object or action
Onomatopoeia
when a noun or verb refers to a sound and imitates it
Reduplication
doubling the first element of the word
An habitual combination of lexeme is know as COLLOCATION
SHORTENING
Reference english as learner :
STANDARD ENGLISH :
Reference model thought to foreaners, codified form of the language axepted by the speakers serving as a model to a speech comunity
Each foreign speaker will tend to use a different set of mistakes
THE EMERGENCE OF
STANDARD ENGLISH
Standardization proceeds in 4 stages
Selection
: Those groups in a society which are the most powerfu will be emulated and used as a model (13th century the East Midlands triangle dialect was the one prefers by the educated ). 16th century the preferred dialect was that of London, which existed in two standards: a spoken one and the written “
Chancery
standard. (Which differs by adopting characteristics from the Northern dialects)”
Acceptance
: The incorporation of characteristics of the Northern dialect in the emerging standard was made possible by the extremely fluid social situation in the 14th century and its use by famous writers
Elaboration
: spread of the use of the new standard into ever more domains of use, including those such as law and the Church. 1362 English was adopted as one of the languages of the courts. the vocabulary necessary for this grew
Codification
: advent of dictionaries, grammars, and books on orthoepy. two major standard pronunci- ations, the
Received Pronunciation
(19th century, it is a socially rather than regionally based accent.) . The discrepancy between the grammarians’ rules and actual usage continues unabated to this day, and so the standard must and will change.
GENERAL ENGLISH (GenE)
includes a wide spectrum of varieties which are widely used and understood
Traditional dialects do not belong to General English
If within the framework of GenE a speaker chooses a nonstandard variant, we can assume that they will be understood by other speakers of GenE
GenE is the more general term and includes StE
Traditional Dialect
varieties which have the same historical roots as GenE but evolved in enough isolation from GenE that they are difficult for outside speakers of GenE to understand
English creoles
hybrid languages whose lexicon comes predominantly from the English superstrate
new creole language which emerges (often via an intermediate
pidgin
) may have features so different from General English as not to be comprehensible to GenE speakers
We can compare StE, GenE, traditional dialect, and English creoles in regard to five criteria which are sometimes applied to language varieties: historicity, vitality, autonomy, reduction, and purity
SOCIOLINGUISTICS
describes how social identities are established and maintained in language use
SOCIALINGUISTICS PROPER examines the languages used by various groups by the based on age, class, ethnicity, region, gender..; it looks into questions of of groups identity within societies and how variations correlates with membership in groups
the power of a state is the guarantor of an effective language policy, the goal is a reinforcement go the feeling of solidarity with the group in power
in the global context English was choosen after 3 terms: linguistic assimilation, linguistic pluralism, vernacularization, internationalization
DIATYPES
uses are treated under this label that differ according to the porpose or function of a text, its
MODE or medium
(written or spoken), its
STYLE
or
TENOR
(register), its topic of discourse
FIELD
is a language variety determinate by the subject (specific words, marker of a topic)
spoken vs written language
conversation
3 more items...
written
3 more items...
Tenor: frozen, formal, consultative, familiar, informal, colloquial, slang
DIALECTS
is a language variety with their own features determined by users (their geographic areas, social classes..), more oriented toward the social features of users than texts
slang is group language, it helps to establish solidarity and is associated with group identiy
WORDS AS CLASS INDICATORS
: there is a link between lexical choices and the social class of a speaker
ALAN ROSS tallked about U vs NON U (
U= upper class
), meal names can be class indicators (tee, dinner, supper)
The difference between standard and non standard english has nothing to do with differences between formal and informal english
Enable us to recognise and determine a substandard variant
Substandard vaitiety’s mistakes becomes features
Written language is far more standardised
Language as a sign of group identity (accents stereotypes)
upper-class usage of Southern England that was adopted as standard
Improprieties
chiefly concern similar words which historically had distinct meanings but are commonly used as if identical.
Solecisms
comprise what is felt to be violations of number concord, asse paradigmatic
Barbarisms
include a number of different things. They may be foreign expressions deemed unnecessary, fully acceptable if there is not a shorter and clearer English way to the meaning or if the foreign terms are especially appropriate
ENGLISH LEXICON
GERMANIC (from old English and old Norse),FRENCH, LATIN, GREEK, CELTIC, ANGLOSAXON, NATIVE, ROMANZ
English vocabulary changes frequently bc of contacts and culture dominations, globalisation , new words are coined all the time
easy accept
foreign loans
into their lexicon
loan word
s are more specific in meaning, less emotional thus more FORMAL , longer (especially latin borrowing)
English native words
are generally
short
(even 1 syllabic)
remarkably large vocabulary (number of words between 300,000 and 450,000)
With no true
synonyms
Every word has it’s
denotation
(the object,person,idea,state which a word refers to) and
connotative
meaning (attitudes which a word evoke)
English lexicon is larger than most other languages, due to historical reasons : invasions and historical changes
started out with a Anglo-saxon word stock, viking and Norman enriched the language
LEXICON OR LEXIS is English actual total words stock
can belong to grammatical categories that we call
CLASSES or
PART OF SPEECH
each words classes works in the same ways
English words can change words classes
they help us know that a certain word have a specific features
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nouns
pronouns
verbs
adjectives
preopsitions
conjunctions
articles
interjections
adverbs
3 major families
LEXICAL
: nouns, verbs, adjective, adverbs
have a semantic meaning
open
:open_file_folder: to new items so they can be expanded
FUNCTION
(pronouns, prepositions, conjunction, articles)
have little meaning and more function
fixed
and can’t be expanded :file_folder:
fewer number of words and change is very slow, majority are old English or old norse
usually contains just 1 or 2 syllables
INSERTS
(interjections)
recognisable by their morphology and position
WORDS IN COMBINATION
lexemes that consist of more than one word form,
semantic criterion of idiomaticity, that is, whether the meaning can be deduced from the meaning of the individual words (literal) or not (idiomatic)
lexical
bundles
, which are well-tried combi- nations of three or more word forms used as building blocks in discourse. can be incomplete (
in addition to
) or structurally complete (
in the same way
)
fixed expressions would also include traditional phrases, slogans, and quotations
By using clichés we signal that we have acquired part of the culture of a given speech community
